Chapter 6

Chapter 6
The
Proteins
and Amino
Acids
2010 Cengage-Wadsworth
What Proteins Are Made Of

Protein structure
Essential & nonessential amino
acids
Proteins as the source of lifes
variety
Denaturation of proteins

Proteins: compounds
composed of atoms of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogenarranged as
strands of amino acids.
Some amino acids also
contain atoms of sulfur.
Amino (a-MEEN-o) acids:
building blocks of protein;
each is a compound with an
amine group at one end, an
acid group at the other, and a
distinctive side chain.
Amine (a-MEEN) group: the
nitrogen-containing portion of
an amino acid.
An Amino Acid: glycine
Acid
group
Amine
group
Side
group
An Amino Acid: phenylalanine
p. 172
A. Essential & Nonessential Amino

Acids
Nine amino acids
Cannot be made
(synthesized) by the
body from other
amino acids
Protein foods must
be eaten daily that
contain these amino
acids
11 amino acids
Can be made from
other parts
Nitrogen (other
proteins)
Backbone
(carbohydrates
and fats)

Nine essential amino
acids:
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine
Essential amino
acids: amino acids
that cannot be
synthesized by the body
or that cannot be
synthesized in amounts
sufficient to meet
physiological need.

The nonessential amino acids are
also important in nutrition:
Alanine
Arginine
Asparagine
Aspartic acid
Cysteine
Glutamic Acid
Glutamine
Glycine
Proline
Serine
Tyrosine
Contd
Some amino acids are
considered essential at
different stages of life
or in states of illness.
Conditionally
essential

Protein synthesis:
the process by which cells

assemble amino acids into
proteins.
Each individual is unique
because of minute
differences in the ways his
or her body proteins are
made.
The instructions for making
every protein in a persons
body are transmitted in the
genetic information the
person receives at
conception.
Peptide bond: a bond
that connects one amino

acid with another.

Proteins are made of many different amino
acid units hooked to each other.
Strands of proteins are tangled chains, globular in
structure.
The differing shapes of proteins enable them

to perform different tasks in the body.
Proteins may repel or attract water.
Some proteins contain minerals or vitamins.
Several proteins may gather to form a functional
group.
B. Synthesis of Proteins
Strand coils & folds back on
itself, giving the protein a
distinct shape.
Shapes of proteins affect how
they are used in the body
C. Denaturation of
Proteins
First step in its destruction
Excess heat, alcohol, acids or
salts of heavy metals can
damage the bodys proteins
Stomach acid opens up the
proteins structure and permits
digestive enzymes to act upon
the protein.
II. The Functions of

Proteins
A. Growth & Maintenance
Dietary protein ensures that
amino acids are available to
build the proteins needed for
new tissue.
Nearly all cells are constantly
replaced, requiring protein.
The Functions of Body

Proteins
Growth & maintenance
Enzymes
Hormones
Antibodies
Fluid balance
Acid-base balance
Transport proteins
Proteins as energy
Functions of Body Proteins

No living tissue can be built
without protein.
Protein is part of every living cell.
Proteins account for about 20% of
our body weight.
Proteins come in many forms and
perform many vital functions.

Amino acids are constantly needed for the
body to build the proteins of new tissue
during growth and maintenance.
Examples of growth: a developing embryo; a
growing child.
Examples of maintenance: replacing blood lost
to burns, hemorrhage, or surgery; developing
scar tissue that heals wounds; replacing hair or
nails; replacing cells that are worn out.
Amino acids must constantly be resupplied

by food for new growth to occur.

Proteins form vital parts of most of
our body structures.
Examples of body structures include
skin, hair, nails, membranes, muscles,
teeth, bones, organs, ligaments, and
tendons.
Functions of Body
Proteins
Enzyme Action
Each enzyme
facilitates a specific
chemical reaction.
B. Enzymes
Proteins such as enzymes
are catalysts that help
chemical reactions take
place.
Each enzyme is specific for
a particular reaction.
A
B
Enzyme plus two compounds, A and B
A
B
Enzyme complexed with A and B
AB
Enzyme plus new compound AB
p. 174

Hormones: chemical messengers.
Hormones are secreted by a variety

of glands in the body in response to
altered conditions.
Each affects one or more target
tissues or organs and elicits specific
responses to restore normal
conditions.
C. Hormones
Some hormones, but not
all, are proteins
Hormones signal the
appropriate enzymes to act.

Antibodies: large proteins of the blood and
body fluids, produced by one type of immune

cell in response to invasion of the body by
unfamiliar molecules (mostly foreign proteins).
Antibodies inactivate the foreign substances and so
protect the body.
The foreign substances are called antigens.
Immunity: specific disease resistance
derived from the immune systems memory of

prior exposure to specific disease agents and
its ability to mount a swift response against
them.
Malnutrition injures the immune system.
D. Antibodies
Formed in response to foreign
substances in the body.
Each antibody is specific to one
foreign substance.
Once an antibody is made for
the substance, the body
develops immunity to that
substance.

Fluid balance:
distribution of fluid
among body
compartments.
Shown here are the
fluids within and
surrounding a cell.
Body proteins help
hold fluid within cells,
tissues, and blood
vessels.
E. Fluid Balance
Fluid Balance:
Proteins help regulate the
quantity of fluids to help
maintain fluid balance.
Cells and the spaces between
cells must contain a constant flux
of and amount of fluid.
Water can diffuse freely in and
out of a cell; proteins can not
Fluid between cells

(intercellular or
interstitial fluid)
Fluid within
blood vessel
(intravascular
fluid)
Fluid within cell

(intracellular fluid)
Nucleus
Cell
Blood vessels
p. 175

Acid-Base Balance: equilibrium between
acid and base concentrations in the body
fluids.
Acid-base balance of blood is carefully
controlled.
Normal body processes continually

produce acids and bases.
Acids: compounds that release hydrogens in
a watery solution; acids have a low pH.
Bases: compounds that accept hydrogens
from solutions; bases have a high pH.

Acid-Base Balance
Acidosis (a-sih-DOSE-sis): blood acidity
above normal, indicating excess acid.
Alkalosis (al-kah-LOH-sis): blood
alkalinity above normal.
Buffers: compounds that help keep a

solutions acidity (amount of acid) or
alkalinity (amount of base) constant.
Some proteins act as buffers to maintain
normal blood pH.
F. Acid-Base Balance
Normal body processes produce
acids & bases that must be
excreted
pH: concentration of hydrogen
ions
Acids: release hydrogen ions
Bases: accept hydrogen ions
Acid-Base Balance: equilibrium
between acids and bases in body
Contd
Blood proteins act as buffers for
acid-base balance.
Buffers: can give up or add
extra hydrogen to maintain
balance
Acidosis or alkalosis may occur
if acid-base balance is upset
G. Transport Proteins
Move nutrients and other
molecules in and out of cells
Turn on and off
Hormones do the switching
Move substances from one

organ to another
Lipoproteins
Vitamins and minerals

Transport Proteins specialize in
moving nutrients and molecules
into and out of cells.
The sodium-potassium pump is
switched on and off by hormones.
Special proteins carry vitamins,
minerals.
Lipoproteins carry lipids.

Protein As Energy:
In the absence of adequate energy, the
body will sacrifice protein to provide
energy.
The amine group will be degraded,
incorporated by the liver into urea, and
sent to the kidneys for excretion in urine.
Urea (yoo-REE-uh): the principal nitrogen
excretion product of metabolism, generated
mostly by the removal of amine groups from
unneeded amino acids or from those amino
acids being sacrificed to a need for energy.

Protein As Energy:
After the amine group is removed, the
remaining carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
will be used for immediate energy.
Protein sparing: a description of the effect
of carbohydrate and fat, which, by being
available to yield energy, allow amino acids to
be used to build body proteins.
Excess amino acids are not stored by the

body.
After removing the amine group, the excess is

converted to glycogen or fat for energy storage.
A summary of protein digestion & absorption
G. Energy
Protein may be sacrificed to provide
energy if insufficient carbohydrate
and fat are eaten.
Amino acids are degraded for
energy.
Amino acids will only make proteins
if carbs and fat are providing
protein-sparing energy.
Protein-sparing: Leave amino acids
alone to make proteins
III. Digestion & Absorption

of Protein
Begins in the stomach with
denaturation
Breaks into dipeptides,
tripeptides and free amino
acids into small intestine
Protein Quality of Foods

Complete vs. incomplete proteins
Limiting amino acids
Complementary proteins
Protein quality evaluation
Ease of absorption
Nitrogen retention/loss - biological
value

Complete proteins: proteins containing all
the essential amino acids in the right proportion

relative to need. The quality of a food protein is
judged by the proportions of essential amino
acids that it contains relative to our needs.
Animal proteins are the highest in quality.
Incomplete protein: a protein lacking or
low in one or more of the essential amino acids.
Limiting amino acid: a term given to the
essential amino acid in shortest supply (relative
to the bodys need) in a food protein; it
therefore limits the bodys ability to make its
own proteins.

Complementary
proteins: two or more
food proteins whose

amino acid assortments
complement each other
in such a way that the
essential amino acids
limited in or missing from
each are supplied by the
others.
Both meals shown supply an

adequate assortment of
amino acids

HOW TWO PLANT PROTEINS
COMBINE TO YIELD A COMPLETE
PROTEIN:
Two incomplete proteins (for

example, legumes plus grains)
can be combined to equal a
complete protein (peanut
butter sandwich). In this
example,
the peanut butter provides adequate

amounts of the amino acid lysine, but
is lacking in methionine.
The bread complements the peanut
butter because it contains adequate
methionine, but is lacking in lysine.
When combined as a sandwich,

all essential amino acids are
present.
Protein & Health

Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)
Kwashiorkor
Marasmus
Too much protein
Protein & Health

Protein in the diet
Dairy foods
Fish & shellfish
Meat & chicken
Nuts & nut butters
Eggs
Legumes
Eat More Beans

Add legumes to weekly meals
Explore the many varieties of
legumes
Learn more about legumes & their
nutritional benefits online
Recommended Protein
Intakes
Recommended protein intakes can
be stated by two methods.
As a percentage of total calories:
Protein should provide 10%-35% of total
calories.
As an absolute number (grams per

day).
A healthy adult should consume 0.8 gram
per kilogram of desirable body weight per
day.
Recommended Protein Intakes

To calculate the percentage of calories you
derive from protein:
1. Use your total calories as the denominator
(example: 1,900 cal).
2. Multiply your total protein intake in grams by
4 cal/g to obtain calories from protein as the
numerator (example:
70 g protein 4 cal/g = 280 cal).
3. Divide to obtain a decimal, multiply by 100,
and round off (example:
280/1,900 100 = 15% cal from protein).
Recommended Protein Intakes

To figure your recommended protein intake (RDA):
1. Find the desirable weight for a person your height
(see Appendix A). Assume this weight is appropriate
for you.
2. Change pounds to kilograms (divide pounds by 2.2;
one kilogram = 2.2 pounds).
3. Multiply kilograms by 0.8 g/kg.
Example (for a 58 male):

1. Desirable weight: about 150 lb.
2. 150 lb. divide by 2.2 lb. = 68 kg (rounded off).
3. 68 kg 0.8 g/kg = 54 g protein (rounded off).
Protein and Health

Protein deficiency and energy deficiency
go hand in hand so often that public
health officials have given a nickname
to the pair.
Protein-energy malnutrition
(PEM), also called protein-calorie
malnutrition (PCM): the worlds
most widespread malnutrition
problem, including both kwashiorkor
and marasmus.
Protein and Health

Kwashiorkor (kwashee-OR-core): a
deficiency disease caused
by inadequate protein in
the presence of adequate
food energy.
Edema (eh-DEEM-uh):
swelling of body tissue
caused by leakage of fluid
from the blood vessels,
seen in (among other
conditions) protein
deficiency.
Protein and Health

Marasmus (ma-RAZ-
mus): an energy deficiency

disease; starvation.
Dysentery (DISS-enterry): an infection of the
digestive tract that causes
diarrhea.
Acquired immune
deficiency syndrome
(AIDS): an immune system
disorder caused by the

human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV).
Protein and Health

Too Much Protein
The problems of protein excess can be found
in developed countries.
Possible to overload the liver and kidneys.
Can promote calcium excretion.
Excess protein can be converted to energy and
stored as body fat.
No apparent benefit to consuming too much protein
when caloric intake is adequate.
Eat More Beans
1. Enjoy adding
more legumes to
your weekly
meals.
2. Enjoy a variety
of dried, beans,
peas, and lentils
when dining out.
The Vegetarian Diet
Well-planned, plant-based
meals consisting of:
A variety of whole grains
Legumes and nuts
Vegetables and fruits
Eggs and dairy products
(for some vegetarians)
Can offer sound nutrition
and health benefits to
vegetarians and nonvegetarians alike.
IV. Protein Quality

A measure of the essential amino
acid content of a protein relative to
the essential amino acid needs of
the body
Biological value (BV) how well
supports nitrogen balance
Reference protein egg white
protein, the standard to which
other proteins are compared = 100
score
Complete and Incomplete

Proteins
Complete protein:
contains all the
essential amino
acids in the right
proportion relative
to need
Meat, dairy
products, and many
soybean products
High Biological
Value
Incomplete
protein: lacking or
low in one or more
of the essential
amino acids
Most plant based
proteins
Low Biological
Value
Complimentary
Proteins
Two or more food proteins
whose amino acid
assortments complement each
other in such a way that the
essential amino acids limited
in or missing from each are
supplied by the others.
VI.Protein & Health

A. Too Little Protein
Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

The worlds main form of
malnutrition
1.Kwashiorkor: a deficiency
disease caused by inadequate
protein in the presence of
adequate food energy
2.Marasmus: an energy-deficiency
disease; starvation
B. Too Much Protein

No benefits to eating too much
protein
Risks associated with
overconsumption
Many protein-rich animal
sources are high in fat
Zinc loss is observed in animal
studies
Contd
If amino acids are in excess of
needs, the body will remove the
amine group and convert the
residues to glucose and
glycogen or to fat.
High protein intake also
increased excretion of calcium
Extra stress on kidneys
C. Choosing Protein
Wisely
More is not necessarily better
Select 1/3 or less of protein from animal
sources
Include legumes:
Garbanzo beans, great northern beans,
kidney beans
Lentils, lima beans, pinto beans, split peas,
white navy beans, soybeans
High quality protein, fat free, high in

fiber
Function of protein
coagulation
Raw eggs are runny, but

when they are cooked the
white changes colour and
becomes solid. This is called
coagulation.
Sauces can be thickened using
eggs, e.g. hollandaise sauce.
Custards can also be thickened
or set e.g. a custard tart.
Eggs can also form a glue to
bind ingredients, e.g. burgers.
In coagulation, the heat makes the proteins

in the egg uncoil and forms a solid structure.
Uses of coagulation
Gluten
Gluten
is made when proteins from wheat flour are

mixed with water. It is important when making bread.
Kneading dough untangles the
protein strands and develops
the gluten.
The gluten is strong and elastic,
and holds the bread together.
Gluten traps the gases that
form in bread when you cook it.
Strong flour has more gluten,
and so is better for making bread
than ordinary flour.
Gelatine
Gelatine
is a protein that can be used to set foods. It is

extracted from the connective tissue in meat.
When you make a
jelly, you mix
gelatine with warm
water, which makes
the protein chains
unfold.
As the jelly cools, the
proteins form a
network and the
jelly sets.
What do you think will
happen if you heat the jelly
up again?
Emulsions
Oils and water dont usually mix. If you mix them up,
they separate out again. If you want to keep the oil
and water mixed, you have to add an emulsifying
agent.
Mayonnaise is a mixture of
oil and vinegar. Egg yolk is
added to make the mixture
into an emulsion and stop it
separating.
Margarine is also a water in
oil substance which has
emulsifiers to hold it in a
solid shape.
Other emulsifiers include honey and mustard.
Where might these act as an emulsifier?
Food Types and Properties

Starches add bulk to food, and can be used as
thickeners.
Sugar adds sweetness, colour and flavouring and

can be caramelized.
Fat traps air when it is beaten with sugar.
It also shortens foods to give a crumbly texture and
makes mixtures feel moist when eaten.
Proteins trap air when they are whisked into a foam.
The protein in egg white coagulates and sets
when
heated.
Gluten
is a protein
found in wheat and is
important when making
bread.

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What Proteins Are Made Of

What Proteins Are Made Of

An Amino Acid: glycine

An Amino Acid: phenylalanine

A. Essential & Nonessential Amino

What Proteins Are Made Of

What Proteins Are Made Of

What Proteins Are Made Of

the process by which cells

Peptide bond: a bond

that connects one amino

What Proteins Are Made Of

The differing shapes of proteins enable them

II. The Functions of

The Functions of Body

Functions of Body Proteins

Functions of Body Proteins

Amino acids must constantly be resupplied

Functions of Body Proteins

Enzyme complexed with A and B

Enzyme plus new compound AB

Functions of Body Proteins

Hormones are secreted by a variety

Functions of Body Proteins

body fluids, produced by one type of immune

Immunity: specific disease resistance

derived from the immune systems memory of

Functions of Body Proteins

Fluid between cells

Fluid within cell

Functions of Body Proteins

Normal body processes continually

Functions of Body Proteins

Buffers: compounds that help keep a

Move substances from one

Functions of Body Proteins

Functions of Body Proteins

Functions of Body Proteins

Excess amino acids are not stored by the

After removing the amine group, the excess is

A summary of protein digestion & absorption

III. Digestion & Absorption

Protein Quality of Foods

Protein Quality of Foods

the essential amino acids in the right proportion

Protein Quality of Foods

food proteins whose

Both meals shown supply an

Protein Quality of Foods

Two incomplete proteins (for

the peanut butter provides adequate

When combined as a sandwich,

Protein & Health

Too much protein

Protein & Health

Eat More Beans

As an absolute number (grams per

Recommended Protein Intakes

Recommended Protein Intakes

Example (for a 58 male):

Protein and Health

Protein and Health