MMPE 290

Introduction to Mining & Mineral Process

Engineering
Mining Geology and Exploration

Mining Geology and Exploration

How much metal is available?

What is a mineral? What is ore?
How do ore deposits form?
Mining exploration methods
Role of exploration in mining
Case histories

Economically Important
Metal
Concentrations
in Earths
Concentration
Metal
(% by weight)
Crust
Aluminum
Iron
Copper
Nickel
Zinc
Uranium
Lead
Silver
Gold

8.0
5.8
0.0058
0.0072
0.0082
0.00016
0.001
0.000008
0.0000002

Note for
comparison:
Silicon 28%
Oxygen 46%

What is a mineral?
A solid naturally-occurring compound
having
a
definite
chemical
composition
Examples:
quartz - SiO2 (an oxide)
hematite - Fe2O3 (another oxide)
covelite - CuS (a sulphide)

What is an ore deposit?

An occurrence of minerals or
metals
in
sufficiently
high
concentration to be profitable to
mine and process using current
technology and under current
economic conditions.

What is ore grade?

Ore grade is the concentration
of economic mineral or metal in
an ore deposit.
Weight percentage (base
metals)
Grams/tonne or oz/ton
(precious metals)

Economically Important
Metals
Typical GradesTypical
of Ore
Grade
Metal
(% by weight)
Deposits
Aluminum
Iron
Copper
Nickel
Zinc
Uranium
Lead
Silver
Gold

30
53
0.5-4
1
4
0.3
5
0.01
0.0001-0.001

What does it take to be

an ore deposit?
2

10

Iron
Aluminum

Typical Orebody Concentration

10

Lead Zinc
Copper
Nickel

10

Uranium

y=x

-1

10

Silver

-2

10

-3

10

Gold

-4

10

-7

10

-5

10

-3

10

-1

10

Crustal Concentration

10

10

Hydrothermal Ore
Deposits
As magma cools, more abundant
metals (silicon, aluminum) deposit
first
Solidification of magma releases
water - a hydrothermal solution
Minerals precipitate from
hydrothermal solution and deposit in
cracks or veins in rock

Metamorphic Ore
Deposits
Concentration of minerals caused by
high temperatures and pressures
near intrusions
Examples:
Lead-zinc deposits in southeast
B.C.
Diamonds
Garnets

Hydrothermal and
Metamorphic Ore
Deposits
Geyser or hot spring

zoning

Hydrothermal solutions
entering veins in rocks

Ore deposit
Alteration of rocks by
heat and pressure

Intrusion

Sedimentary Ore Deposits

Deposition
of
dense,
resistant
minerals in streams, lakes etc
(Alluvial Deposits),
e.g. Placer
gold
Precipitation
of
minerals
from
ancient oceans (Evaporite Deposits),
e.g. Potash and salt deposits
Accumulation,
burial
and
petrification of vegetation, e.g. Coal
Deposits.

Exploration Methods

Remote sensing
Geological mapping
Geophysical surveys
Geochemical surveys
Bulk sampling
Drilling (core or destructive)

Airborne Geophysics
Helicopter
Bush
Cable

Bird

GEOPHYSICAL
METHODS

Geochemical Anomalies

DIAMOND DRILL

DIAMOND DRILL
HOLE SIZES

SURFACE SET
DIAMOND DRILL
CORE BIT AND
REAMING SHELL

Senior Mining Company

Exploration Expenditures - 1997
Total: $817.7M

Junior Mining Company

Exploration Expenditures - 1997
Total: $262.2M

Role of Exploration
Each ton of ore mined must be
replaced with another ton to
continue business.
The alternative to exploration is
acquisition of mining properties.
Exploration has a high failure rate,
but this should not affect a
diversified mining company.
Exploration costs are taxdeductible.

Diamonds in Canada?
Diamonds
are
formed
at
high
pressure deep in the earth and
transported to surface in kimberlite
pipes
Other
minerals
also
formed
if
pressures high enough - indicator
minerals
Indicator minerals are mobile and
easily transported by erosion.

An eroded kimberlite pipe

Direction of glacier flow

Indicator minerals

Kimberlite pipe

Lac de Gras

The Ekati Mine

Recommended Reading
Fire into Ice
Charles Fipke and the
Great Diamond Hunt
by Vernon Frolick
Raincoast Press

Nevada Gold
Formed 30-50 million years ago by
hydrothermal activity in sedimentary
rocks
Part of a large mineralized zone
extending into Mexico and Central
America
Carlin, Bootstrap, Cortez, Gold Acres
Some deposits low grade but can
now be processed using heap leach
technology

South American Ore

Deposits
Volcanic and igneous activity in
Andes produces a variety of rich
mineral deposits
Minerals are exposed at or very near
the surface - leads to oxidation
requiring different kinds of mineral
processing
Transport of mineral products, power
and water supply a concern in high
Andes