IR between two World Wars;

Russian Revolution, Fascism, League

of Nations etc.
Recap of paper 1

Russian Revolution: Intro

Nothing epitomises communist ascent than the
following;
Let the ruling classes tremble at a communist
revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose
but their chains. They have a world to win.
Workingmen of all countries, unite!
Karl Marx

Russian Revolution steered Russia towards

dictatorship, made communism an influential form
of government and created Soviet Union.

Russian Revolution: Intro

Nicholas II was the last tsar of Russia descending from
Romanov dynasty that ruled the country for almost three
centuries, he was ousted by Bolsheviks under the leadership
of Vladimir Lenin in 1917.
When Bolshevik Party forces took over the government
offices in Petrograd.
However, the problems that led toward revolution had been
developing for generations.
The revolutions consequences, too, were far reaching, the
Communist Party, which formed to lead post-revolutionary
Russia, remained in power until 1991.

Causes of Revolution: An overview

1774 Rebellion of Cossacks and peasants.

1825 Dekabrist (Decembrist) uprising against czarism led
by liberal officers.
1848 The Communist Manifesto published by Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels: The foundation of revolutionary
socialism or communism
1861 Peasant Reform; abolition of serfdom in Russia.
1864 The International (first international organisation of
socialist workers) established by Marx and others.
1882 Plekhanov publishes first pamphlet introducing
Marxian socialism into Russia.

Causes of Revolution: An overview

1905 The Revolution of 1905 in Russia. First organisation of soviets
by Russian workers.
(January 9, 1905) Bloody Sunday: workers led by Father Gapon
and carrying a petition to the czar [Nicholas II], are mowed down by
the czars troops.
Devastation of World War Ihigh casualties, economic ruin,
widespread hunger
Widespread suffering under autocracythe czar with absolute
power.
Weak leadership of Czar Nicholas II adhered to autocracy
despite changing times
Poor working conditions, low wages, and hazards of industrialization
New revolutionary movements that
government should replace czarist rule

believed

worker-run

Causes of Revolution: An overview

Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1905), which led to rising
unrest.
Bloody Sunday, the massacre of unarmed protestors outside the
palace, in 1905
The March Revolution in 1917, soldiers who were controlling crowd
ultimately joined labour activists in calling Down with the
autocracy!
Russia in the late nineteenth / early twentieth century was a massive
empire.
Stretching from Poland to the Pacific and home of 165 million people
of many languages religions and cultures in 1914.
Ruling such a massive state was difficult, and the problems within
Russia resulted the revolution in 1917.
Immediate cause was WWI along with other numerous long term
causes, given below.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Peasant Poverty:
In 1916, more than two third of the population were
peasants villagers.
Actually their life had improved in 1861, before which they
were serfs who were owned and could be traded by their
landowners.
1861 saw the serfs freed and issued with small amounts of
land.
But they had to pay back a sum to the government, and
the result was a mass of small farms deeply in debt.
Primitive and outdated farming techniques kept the
peasantry poor.

Causes of Revolution

Peasant Poverty:
Families lived just above the subsistence level, and around
50% had a member who had left the village for the work in
towns.
Their life was in sharp contrast to the rich landowners, who
held 20% of the land in large estates and were often
members of the Russian upper class.
The result was, by 1917, a central mass of disaffected
peasants, angry at increased attempts to control them, and
at people who profited from the land without directly working
it.
The common peasant mindset was firmly against
developments outside the village, and desired autonomy.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

A Growing and Politicised Urban Workforce:
The industrial revolution came to Russia in the 1890s.
Russian cities began to expand and large numbers of
peasants moved to the cities for jobs.
This resulted rapid urbanization with poor housing, bad
wages, and no labour rights
Govt. could not reform wages fearing the loss of foreign
investments.
The urban workforce also retained the land in the village.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

A Growing and Politicised Urban Workforce:
These workers swiftly began to grow politicised and
ridiculed government restrictions on their protests.
Forming
a
fertile
ground
for
the
socialist
revolutionaries who moved between cities and exile in
Siberia.
In order to try and counter the spread of anti-Tsarist
ideology, the government formed neutral trade unions.
In 1905, and 1917, politicised socialist workers played
a major role in uprising against the Tsar Nicholas II
under the banner of socialism.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Autocracy and a Lack of Representation:
Russia was ruled by Romanov family for three centuries.
Ruled alone with no true representative bodies: even the Duma, an
elected body created in 1905 was often bypassed by Tsar.
Freedom of expression was non-existent, books and newspaper
censored.
Secret police was oppressive in crushing dissent either by executing
people or sending them to exile in Siberia.
The result was an autocratic regime under which republicans,
democrats, revolutionaries, socialists were distasted and were
increasingly desperate for reform.
Some wanted violent change, others peaceful, but as opposition to
the Tsar was banned, opponents were increasingly driven to
extreme measures.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Autocracy and a Lack of Representation:
Tsar Nicholas II - was accused of lacking the will to govern.
For many, he was determined to govern but he was an incompetent
autocrat.
There was a strong reforming essentially westernizing movement
in Russia during the mid-nineteenth century under Alexander II, with
elites split between reform and entrenchment.
A constitution was being written when Alexander II was assassinated
in 1881.
Nicholas II in turn, reacted against the reforms, not only halting it
but starting a counter reform of centralized, autocratic government.
Czar Nicholas II was unable or unwilling to deal with Russias
problems.
The Russian people wanted to end absolute rule.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Bad Governance:
The last Tsar wasnt a just ruler.
There was a body of competing bodies out of whose
confusion law, judgement and government decisions
appeared entirely subjective, random, or reliant on
patronage.
Historians have concluded that Russia was under governed
with peasants has no contact with higher government
officials because of little local govt.
Government had to go through landed nobility, largely in
the zemstvos, but after peasant emancipation (1861) these
landowners declined and then turned on the government,
demanding reform

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Bad Governance:
In this way the bedrock of the old tsarist regime turned on
the tsar.
Furthermore, the rulers had little idea of the peasant view,
and the mass of peasants had no engagement with the
government.
Resultantly, peasants and labourers showed no worries
about the wiping away of the whole Tsarist regime in 1917.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Alienated Military:
Humiliating defeat by Japan in 1905.
WWI - The Russian armies met with a series
military defeats.
5,000,000 Russian soldiers were killed in the war.
The backward Russian military was treated
inhumanely and less than the common citizen.
They wanted dignity and better life conditions.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Alienated Military:
In 1917, the Bolsheviks would appear to offer this.
In addition, the professional officer class was also
alienated from the Tsar and his court over the
question of modernizing.
In had become apparent to the officers that war
was changing, but the army remained mired in the
past.
These professionals turned to the Duma for a
solution.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Politicized and polarized Civil Society:
By the 1890s, Russia had an educated, political culture
among a group of people but few in number insufficient to
be called as a Middle Class.
It was between the aristocracy and the peasants / workers.
This group was part of a civil society which sent their youth
for studies, read newspapers, and looked towards serving
the public rather than the Tsar.
Largely liberal, the events of a severe famine in the early
1890s both politicized and radicalized them.
With the realization that how ineffective the Tsarist
government now was, and how much they could achieve if
they were allowed to unite.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Politicized and polarized Civil Society:
The members of the zemstovs were chief among these.
As the Tsar refused to meet their demands, so many of this
social sphere turned against him and his government.
Economic Aspects:
The peasants wanted the nobles fertile lands.
Factories proved unable to satisfy military and civilian needs.
Severe food shortages.
Social Aspects:
There was widespread discontent in all classes of Russian
society.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

Revolutionary Parties:
Kadets
Social revolutionaries
Mensheviks and Bolsheviks challenged the Czar and
promoted reform.

Out Break of Revolution:

In February 1917 bread riots break out in Petrograd.
Factory workers went on strike.
The soldiers sent to break the strikes and riots sided
with the people.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

The Kerensky Government March-November
1917:
Czar Nicholas II abdicates in 1917.
A Provisional Government under Alexander
Kerensky is set up February 1917.
Failure of Provincial Government:
The Provisional Government failed because:
It continued the war
It could not feed the cities.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

It did not approve land seizures.
Petrograd Soviet
The Petrograd Soviet became a rival to the Kerensky Government,
taking on such tasks as regulating food supply and organizing a
workers militia.
The Short Term Cause: World War 1
The WWI acted as catalyst for Russias revolutionary year of 1917.
The war itself went badly from the start with massive Russian
casualties.
This prompted the Tsar to take personal charge in 1915, a decision
which placed the full responsibility for the next years of failure on his
shoulders.
To meet the growing war demands men and horses were taken away.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

The Short Term Cause: World War 1:
Peasantry became furious because it reduced the
amount they could grow and damaging their standard of
living.
Farms with more yield suddenly lost their labour and
material removed for the war, and the less successful
peasants became ever more concerned with selfsufficiency.
Inflation skyrocketed and commodities became scarce so
hunger became endemic.
High prices precipitated agitation for better wages by
workers.

Detailed Causes of Revolution

The Short Term Cause: World War 1:
Strikes were there they were branded as disloyal to
Russia disaffecting them further.
The transport system ground to a halt due to failures and
poor management, halting the movement of military
supplies and food.
Meanwhile soldiers on leave explained how poorly supplied
the army was, and brought firsthand accounts of the failure
at the front.
These soldiers, and the high command who had previously
supported the Tsar, now believed he had failed them.

Characters of Revolutions
Vladimir Lenin 1870-1924:

Founded the Bolshevik

Party.
Lenin was a Marxist
Ideologist.
Lenin was exiled for
many years, but returned
in April 1917 and led a
revolt
against
the
Kerensky Government.

Characters of Revolutions
Leon Trotsky 18791924:
Trotsky played a leading
role
in
the
October
Revolution.
In 1918 he organized the
Red Army and led it to
victory during the civil war
against the White forces.

Bread Land Peace

Lenin and the Bolsheviks promised the people

what they wanted most:
Food for the cities.
End Russias involvement in WWI
Land for the peasants.

The Bolshevik Revolution November 6, 1918

On the night of November 6, 1918 Lenin and the

Bolsheviks strike.
The Bolsheviks seize control of the government in
Petrograd.
On November 7, 1918 the Petrograd Soviet voted
to support Lenins overthrow of the Provisional
Government.
Fighting continued for a week.

Civil War 1918-1921

Reds
(Bolsheviks)
Lenin
Trotsky
Bolsheviks
Stalin

VS

Whites
Kerensky

VS

Anti -

Results of the Revolution

Formation of the USSR in 1922 under the control of

Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin.
The government is taken over by the Bolshevik
Party, led by V. Lenin; later, it will be known as the
Communist Party based on the ideas of Karl Marx.
The idea of a continued revolution to spread the
ideas of Communism.
Farmland is distributed among farmers, and
factories are given to workers.
Banks are nationalized and a national council is
assembled to run the economy.

Results of the Revolution

Russia pulls out of World War I, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,
conceding much land to Germany.
Czarist rule ends. Nicholas II, his wife and five children are executed.
Civil war, between Bolshevik red and anti-Bolshevik white
forces.
Russia from 1918 to 1920. Around 15 million die in conflict and the
famine
The Russian economy is in shambles.
Industrial production drops, trade ceases, and skilled workers flee
the country.
Lenin asserts his control by cruel methods such as the Gulag, a vast
and brutal network of prison camps for both criminals and political
prisoners.

Fascism
Man does not search for happiness. Only the
English liberal does that.
Friedrich
Nietzsche

Defining Fascism
Fascism: ideology or attitude that favors dictatorial
government, centralized control of private
enterprise, repression of all opposition, and extreme
nationalism.
Aggressive nationalistic ideology.
The term is more used by the opponents than the proponents
Fascist is used for the connotation of violent, brutal,
repressive, or dictatorial.
Fascism is usually said to have been expansionist and
imperialist by definition.
It is the most extreme form of modern European Nationalism.

Fascism
A modern form of authoritarianism
A mobilizing regime
Glorification of authority

Fascism and Totalitarianism

Fascist ideology is totalitarian, which means a

political system that controls every aspect of life,
so that there is no private sphere or independent
organizations.
Fascism extols aggressive
dominion of the totalistic
individual.

nationalism and
state over the

Fascism in Italy
Short term (1918-1922)
Italian disappointments in the peace settlements,
especially failure to obtain Fiume, Dalmatian coast
Economic crisis (1919-20)
DAnnunzios Fiume expedition (1919)
Growing disorder
Wave of strikes
Growing Socialist strength
Fear of red menace

Fascism in Italy
Difficulty of sustaining cabinets
Long Term
Class, religious, regional divisions
Incompleteness of Italian unification in
1860s, 1870s:
Weak & ineffective regime.

Constitutional monarchy

Dominated
majorities

by

Liberals,

politics

of

Fascist Ideology and Mussolini, Goals and

Ideas:
Italian dictator Benito Mussolini coined the term in
1919, referring to the Roman symbol for power
through unity a
Bundle of reeds called fasces, individually weak
but collectively strong.
Centralized all power in himself as leader (total
control of social, economic, and political life)
Ambition to restore the glory of Rome
Invasion of Ethiopia
Alliance with Hitlers Germany

Fascist Ideology and Mussolini Goals and Ideas:

Mussolini argued that citizens were empowered when they

were subordinated to the state.
By blindly obeying the state, they helped the state thrive,
which benefited them.
To Mussolini, this distinguished the fascist state from
repressive authoritarian governments, which sought to
crush people, & not empower them.
Former socialist
Breaks with his party over its failure to support World War I
Emotional influential speaker.
Leader of Black shirts.

Coming to Power

Ongoing government crisis, widespread

social unrest, weak government during
World War I
1921: fascists elected to parliament
1922: March on Rome:
King Victor Emmanuel II indecisive.
fearing his army unreliable, invites Mussolini to
form of government.

Consolidation of regime

Uses control of government

dictatorship
Modification of electoral law.

Successive
elimination
of
Matteotti assassination (1924)

to

establish

opponents

Suppression of independent forces

Opposition was outlawed (1926)
Nominations for parliament only by Fascist Grand
Council (1928)
Reorganization of state into 22 corporations
(1932)

Building Support

Mussolini builds support by modifying positions,

accommodating key groups
Gains support of business by restricting unions
Gains support of Church by abandoning anticlerical positions
embracing Catholicism,
concluding Lateran pacts (1929)

Fascist Regime

Evolving type
Glorification of nation & leader
Ostensible dispersion of power to independent
corporations running different segments of the
economy
Emphasis on resolving conflicts.
But, use of terror to marginalize opponents.

Fascist Ideology

State is absolute
Glorification of authority
Promises to workers, peasants,
businessman
Bottom line: opportunistic

Other Fascist Regimes

Spain under Franco.

Germany under Hitler the most extreme
Argentina under Juan Peron (1946-55)

Other fascist Regimes

Chile under Pinochet (1973-1990)

Iraq under Saddam Hussein (1970s 2003)
South Africa apartheid regime for Blacks
(1945-1990)

Fascist principles

Anti-individualistic
Anti-democratic
Anti-egalitarian (equality)
Anti-capitalist
Anti-pacifist
Anti-internationalist
Anti-conservative
Anti-intellectual

Nazism - Adolph Hitler 1933

Fascism taken to its extreme form, Racist

and anti-Semitic.
elements that did not appear in Italian
fascism.
Goals and Ideas:
Inflation
and
depression
weakened
the
democratic government in Germany and
allowed an opportunity for Hitler to rise to
power.

Nazism - Adolph Hitler 1933

Believed the western powers had no intention of

using force to maintain the Treaty of Versailles
Anti-Semitism: persecution of Jews
Extreme nationalism: National Socialism
(Nazism)
Aggression: German occupation of nearby
countries
Lebensraum: unite all German speaking nations
Anschluss: German union with Austria

Nazism - Adolph Hitler 1933

Hitler considered himself superior, even though he
was a drifter & failed artist during his youth.
A corporal during WWI, he was devastated by
Germanys loss & blamed it on the Jews.
He started his political career at age 30, joining the
German Workers Party.
He had exceptional speaking skills & came to be
revered by others in the party.
He was chosen German leader in 1921, and
renamed it the National Socialist German Workers
Party.

Nazism - Adolph Hitler 1933

He mounted a coup attempt against the
Weimer Republic in 1923; it failed.
He broke from the right wing establishment
when they didnt back him.
It was at this point that he became convinced
that he should become dictator of Germany,
even though he lacked education and social
status.
By 1933, Hitlers party was the largest in the
country and he was Reich Chancellor.

Mein Kampf (1924)

Hitler wrote this while serving a 9-month prison

sentence after the unsuccessful coup attempt.
He had been sentenced to 5 years but authorities
sympathized with his extreme ethnic nationalism.
The title means My Struggle, and it expounds on
Hitlers Anti Semitism, worship of power, scorn
for morality, and plan for world domination.
That the blood of the highest race must be kept
pure from intermingling with other races if human
culture is to advance; corruption of blood leads to
the destruction of culture.

Nazi Racial theory

Three races:
Aryans (Germanic) culture creating
Jews culture destroying
Middle culture maintaining
- At various levels of hierarchy
between Aryans and Jews.

Nazi Racial theory

The belief that Germans were threatened the most
from an internal enemy led to the Holocaust, the
extermination of 6 million Jewish people in Europe.
Everything was sublimated to the need to purify the
German race.
In fact, it even drove Nazi policies that worked
against the war effort.

Nazi Racial theory

The U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington
D.C. defines the Holocaust as: the state-sponsored
systematic persecution and annihilation of European
Jewry by Nazi Germany and its collaborators between
1933 and 1945.
The Nazi leaders used this euphemism to describe the
policy:"The Final Solution to the Jewish Problem."
Hitler wrote, The Jew has always been a people with
definite racial characteristics and never a religion.
To him, the Jewish religion is not the problem.

Other victims of Nazi ideology

The Nazis also persecuted and killed Gypsies, nonJewish Polish people, homosexuals and people with
disabilities as racial purity reasons.
They killed political dissidents, Soviet prisoners of
war, Freemasons and Jehovahs Witnesses for political
reasons.

The metaphors Hitler used for Jews

A horde of rats
Parasites in the body of other peoples
Subhuman

Hitlers argument about racial superiority.

Natural law: one of the most patent principles of

Nature's rule: the inner segregation of the species
of all living beings on this earth.
History: historical experience offers countless
proofs, e. g., the purity of the race in North
America has led to greater achievements than in
Central & South America.

Questions to Consider
Why did dictatorial governments emerge in
Germany, Italy, Japan, and the USSR after
World War I?
How did fascist (totalitarian) regimes affect
the world following World War I?