Frederic H.

Martini
Fundamentals of
Anatomy & Physiology

Lecture 3: Chapter 3
An Introduction To The Cellular Level of
organization
Pages: 62 - 105
Lecturer: Dr. Barjis
Room: P313 / P307
Phone: (718) 260-5285
E-Mail: ibarjis@citytech.cuny.e

Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Learning Objectives

List the main points of the cell theory.

Describe the chief structural features of the cell
membrane.
Describe the organelles of a typical cell, and give
their specific functions.
Summarize the process of protein synthesis.
Describe the various transport mechanisms used
by cells, and relate this to the transmembrane
potential.
Describe the cell life cycle, mitosis and cellular
differentiation.
An Introduction to Cells
The cell theory states:
Cells are the building blocks of all plants and
animals
Cells are produced by the division of preexisting
cells
Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital
physiological functions
Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular
level
Homeostasis at higher levels reflects
combined, coordinated action of many cells
The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body
Cell biology

Cytology, the study of the structure and function

of cells
The human body contains both somatic and
sex cells
The Anatomy of a Representative Cell
A typical cell

Is surrounded by extracellular fluid, which is the

interstitial fluid of the tissue
Has an outer boundary called the cell membrane
or plasma membrane
The Cell Membrane

Cell membrane functions include:

Physical isolation
Regulation of exchange with the environment
Structural support
The Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with
proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
Membrane proteins include:

Integral proteins
Peripheral proteins
Anchoring proteins
Recognition proteins
Receptor proteins
Carrier proteins
Channels
Membrane proteins
Membrane carbohydrates form the glycocalyx

Proteoglycans
Glycolipids
Glycoproteins
The Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm contains:

The fluid (cytosol)

The organelles the cytosol surrounds
Organelles

Nonmembranous organelles are not enclosed by a

membrane and always in touch with the cytosol
Cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia,
ribosomes, proteasomes
Membranous organelles are surrounded by lipid
membranes
Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria
The Anatomy of a Representative Cell
Cytoskeleton provides strength and flexibility

Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Thick filaments

Microvilli increase surface area

The Cytoskeleton
Centrioles

Direct the movement of chromosomes during cell

division
Organize the cytoskeleton
Cytoplasm surrounding the centrioles is the
centrosome
Cilia

Is anchored by a basal body

Beats rhythmically to move fluids across cell
surface
Centrioles and Cilia
Ribosomes

Are responsible for manufacturing proteins

Are composed of a large and a small ribosomal
subunit
Contain ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Can be free or fixed ribosomes
Ribosomes
Proteasomes

Remove and break down damaged or abnormal

proteins
Require targeted proteins to be tagged with ubiquitin
Endoplasmic reticulum

Intracellular membranes involved in synthesis,

storage, transportation and detoxification
Forms cisternae
Rough ER (RER) contains ribosomes
Forms transport vesicles
Smooth ER (SER)
Involved in lipid synthesis
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus

Forms secretory vesicles

Discharged by exocytosis
Forms new membrane components
Packages lysosomes
The Golgi Apparatus
Functions of the Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes

Lysosomes are
Filled with digestive enzymes
Responsible for autolysis of injured cells
Peroxisomes
Carry enzymes that neutralize toxins
Lysosome Functions
Membrane flow

Continuous movement and recycling of

membranes
ER
Vesicles
Golgi apparatus
Cell membrane
Mitochondria

Responsible for ATP production through aerobic respiration

Matrix = fluid contents of mitochondria
Cristae = folds in inner membrane
The Nucleus

The nucleus is the center of cellular operations

Surrounded by a nuclear envelope

Perinuclear space
Communicates with cytoplasm through nuclear pores
The Nucleus
Contents of the nucleus

A supportive nuclear matrix

One or more nucleoli
Chromosomes
DNA bound to histones
Chromatin
Chromosome Structure
The genetic code

The cells information storage system

Triplet code
A gene contains all the triplets needed to code for
a specific polypeptide
Gene activation and protein synthesis

Gene activation initiates with RNA polymerase

binding to the gene
Transcription is the formation of mRNA from
DNA
mRNA carries instructions from the nucleus to
the cytoplasm
An overview of Protein Synthesis
Translation is the formation of a protein

A functional polypeptide is constructed using

mRNA codons
Sequence of codons determines the sequence
of amino acids
Complementary base pairing of anticodons
(tRNA) provides the amino acids in sequence
The Process of Translation
The Process of Translation
How Things Get Into and Out of Cells

Permeability

The ease with which substances can cross the cell

membrane
Nothing passes through an impermeable
barrier
Anything can pass through a freely permeable
barrier
Cell membranes are selectively permeable
How Things Get Into and Out of Cells
Diffusion

Movement of a substance from an area of high

concentration to low
Continues until concentration gradient is
eliminated
Diffusion
Diffusion across the Cell Membrane
How Things Get Into and Out of Cells

Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a semipermeable

membrane in response to solute differences
Osmotic pressure = force of water movement into
a solution
Hydrostatic pressure opposes osmotic pressure
Water molecules undergo bulk flow
Osmosis
Tonicity

The effects of osmotic solutions on cells

Isotonic = no net gain or loss of water
Hypotonic = net gain of water into cell
Hemolysis
Hypertonic = net water flow out of cell
Crenation
Osmotic flow across a cell membrane
transport

Carrier mediated transport

Binding and transporting specific ions by
integral proteins
Cotransport
Counter-transport
Facilitated diffusion
Compounds to be transported bind to a
receptor site on a carrier protein
Facilitated Diffusion
Active transport

Active transport
Consumes ATP
Independent of concentration gradients
Types of active transport include
Ion pumps
Secondary active transport
The Sodium Potassium Exchange Pump
Secondary Active Transport
Vesicular transport: material moves into or out
of cells in membranous vesicles

Endocytosis is movement into the cell

Receptor mediated endocytosis (coated vesicles)
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis (pseudopodia)
Exocytosis is ejection of materials from the cell
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis
The transmembrane potential

Difference in electrical potential between inside

and outside a cell
Undisturbed cell has a resting potential
The Cell Life Cycle
cell division

Cell division is the reproduction of cells

Apoptosis is the genetically controlled
death of cells
Mitosis is the nuclear division of
somatic cells
Meiosis produces sex cells
The Cell Life Cycle

Interphase

Most somatic cells spend the majority of their

lives in this phase
Interphase includes
G1
S
G2
The Cell Life Cycle
DNA Replication
Mitosis, or nuclear division, has four phases

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides and

cell division ends
Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis
Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis
Mitotic rate and cancer

Generally, the longer the life expectancy of the

cell, the slower the mitotic rate
Stem cells undergo frequent mitoses
Growth factors can stimulate cell division
Abnormal cell division produces tumors or
neoplasms
Benign
Malignant (invasive, and cancerous)
Spread via metastasis
Oncogenes
Differentiation

Process of specialization
Results from inactivation of particular genes
Produces populations of cells with limited
capabilities
Differentiated cells form tissues
You should now be familiar with:

The main points of the cell theory.

The chief structural features of the cell
membrane.
The organelles of a typical cell, and their specific
functions.
The process of protein synthesis.
The various transport mechanisms used by cells,
and how this relates to the transmembrane
potential.
The cell life cycle, mitosis and cellular
differentiation.