MIC125

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY
CHAPTER 6: MICROBIAL ENERGY SOURCES
 OUTLINE

1)Introduction to energy sources

2)Basic bacterial metabolism
Catabolism
Anabolism
3)Production of ATP
4)Biosynthesis of carbohydrates, protein, fats,
and nucleic acids
INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY SOURCES

Living cells require energy from outside sources

Some animals, such as the chimpanzee, obtain
energy by eating plants, and some animals feed on
other organisms that eat plants
 WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?

It is important to have a basic understanding of

metabolism because it governs the survival and growth of
microorganisms.
The growth of microorganisms can have a direct effect on
infectious disease.
Good metabolic function makes pathogens more
successful at causing disease.
 BASIC CONCEPTS OF METABOLISM

Metabolism is:
A series of chemical processes that go on in living
organisms / The sum of all chemical processes carried
out by living organisms.
Used to obtain energy.
Linked to growth.
Require the use of enzymes and coenzymes
 BASIC CONCEPTS OF METABOLISM

2 major pathways in metabolic activity

Anabolism: Reactions that require energy to
synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones.
Catabolism: Reactions that release energy by
breaking complex molecules into simpler ones that
can be reused as building blocks.
Anabolism is needed for growth, reproduction and
repair of cellular structures.
Catabolism provides an organism with energy for its
life processes, including movement, transport.
 BASIC CONCEPTS OF METABOLISM

Carbon and energy are required for growth.

There are two processes by which carbon can be
obtained:
Autotrophy carbon is obtained from inorganic
substances (e.g. plants using CO2 to make sugar)
Heterotrophy carbon is obtained from other
organic molecules
Nearly all infectious organisms are chemoheterotrophs.
Chemoheterotrophs obtain energy by breaking
down other organic molecules and compounds.
 OXIDATION & REDUCTION REACTIONS

Metabolism is broken down

into two parts:
Catabolism molecules are
broken down through metabolic
processes to release the energy
stored in their chemical bonds.

Anabolism metabolic
processes in which the energy
derived from catabolism is used
to build large organic
molecules from smaller ones.
 OXIDATION & REDUCTION
REACTIONS

Both anabolism and catabolism involve electron transfer and

oxidation and reduction reactions redox reaction.
An oxidation reaction is a chemical reaction in which an atom,
ion or molecule loses one or more electrons.
A reduction reaction is a chemical reaction in which an atom, ion
or molecule gains one or more electrons.
 OXIDATION & REDUCTION
REACTIONS

Oxidation and reduction reactions always occur together.

The combination of an oxidation reaction and a reduction
reaction are jointly referred to as redox reactions.
When a substance is oxidized, it loses electrons.
When a substance is reduced, it gains electrons.
 RESPIRATION

In metabolism, respiration occurs at the cellular

level and is not the same as breathing (respiration
at the macroscopic level).
Cellular respiration describes catabolic processes
and is divided into:
Aerobic respiration metabolism that uses oxygen
Anaerobic respiration metabolism that does not use
oxygen
Facultatively anaerobic respiration metabolism that
can use oxygen but can also occur without it
 METABOLIC PATHWAYS

Metabolic reactions occur in series of chemical reactions

called pathways.
The following is an example of a pathway. A is the initial
substrate and E is the final product of the pathway, with
B, C, and D being intermediates.
A B C D E
Each step in the pathway is mediated or facilitated by a
specific enzyme.
 ENZYMES
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for metabolic
reactions, making the reaction go faster.
Enzymes work by lowering the energy of activation.
Each enzyme is specific for a reaction.

Enzymes are found in

all living organisms and
most cells contain
hundreds of types which
are constantly being
manufactured and
replaced.
OVERVIEW OF CELL METABOLISM
 CATABOLIC PROCESSES IN METABOLISM

Catabolic processes in metabolism

cause the breakdown of large
organic molecules into smaller
ones.

These are called fueling reactions

because they cause a release of
energy.
 CATABOLIC PROCESSES IN METABOLISM

There are three important pathways by which

: most organims release energy from nutrient
molecules
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle
Electron transport chain
 GLYCOLYSIS

The catabolic pathway used by most organisms.

The best example of this pathway is glucose breakdown.
The process itself is a series of chemical reactions.

Glucose
 Glycolysis occurs
in
the cytoplasm and does
not require oxygen.

Four ATP molecules

are produced in
glycolysis
The first steps of
the pathway
consume two ATP
molecules.
The net gain is two
ATP molecules.

4 2 = 2 ATP produced Per

glucose molecule (Net)
 After a series of steps, the 6-carbon glucose molecule
broken
is into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules ->
Krebs cycle.
NAD+ carries electrons to the electron transport
chain.

1molecule of glucose
Produces:

2ATP (net)
2 reduced NAD+
2 molecules of
Pyruvate
 Glycolysis can lead to further
energy producing pathways.
Krebs cycle and cellular
respiration (aerobic)
Fermentation (anaerobic)
 THE KREBS CYCLE
The Krebs cycle, A.K.A. the citric acid cycle or Tri-
Carboxylic Acid cycle (TCA).
It is an aerobic catabolic pathway seen in aerobic
cellular respiration.
Pyruvate is further metabolized in this process.
Pyruvate is oxidized to reduce NAD+ and modified
with coenzyme A to produce Acetyl-CoA complex.
 THE KREBS CYCLE

The Krebs cycle is a series of reactions in which chemical

changes occur.
Within these reactions, hydrogen atoms are removed and
their electrons are transferred to coenzyme carrier
molecules.
The hydrogen atoms are carried by NAD+ and FAD to the
electron transport system.
Three important things happen in
the Krebs cycle:
Carbon is oxidized as CO2.
Energy is captured and stored
when ADP is converted to ATP.
Electrons are transferred to
coenzyme carrier molecules that
take the electrons to the electron
transport chain.
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

The electron transport chain is a sequence of molecules.

In eukaryotes, they are found in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
In prokaryotes, they are organized in the plasma
membrane.
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Electrons are transferred to a final electron acceptor.
In aerobic respiration, the final acceptor is oxygen.
In anaerobic respiration, the final acceptor is an inorganic
oxygen- containing molecule.
 CHEMIOSMOSIS
As electrons move from one molecule to another in the chain, energy
is released via a process called chemiosmosis.
As electrons are transferred along the electron transport chain,
protons are pumped out of the cell.
This causes the proton concentration outside the cell to be higher than
inside the cell, causing a concentration gradient to form.
 CHEMIOSMOSIS
Specialized membrane proteins allow protons to re-enter the cell.
Energy is released as protons re-enter the cell.
This energy is used to bind phosphate to ADP, making the high-
energy molecule ATP.
The difference in proton concentration in this process is called
the proton motive force.
 CHEMIOSMOSIS

Cells using anaerobic respiration generate two molecules

of ATP from one glucose molecule.
Cell using aerobic respiration generate thirty eight total
molecules of ATP from one glucose molecule.

Aerobic respiration: 38 ATP / glucose molecule

Anaerobic respiration: 2 ATP / glucose molecule

 FERMENTATION
.
Fermentation is the enzymatic breakdown of carbohydrates in which
the final electron acceptor is an organic molecule
Different microorganisms use
different fermentation pathways.
 ANABOLISM

Anabolic reactions are classified as biosynthetic reactions

because they are used to synthesize all the biological
molecules needed by the cells of living organisms.

Biosynthetic reactions form the network of pathways that

produce the components required by the cell for growth
and survival.

These reactions are fueled by the energy stored in high-

energy bonds in ATP.
ANABOLISM
 PRODUCTION OF ATP

3 major process of cell metabolism/cellular

respiration that can produce ATP including :
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
Fermentation
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION: AEROBIC

Harvesting of energy from glucose has three

stages
Glycolysis
(breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate)
The citric acid cycle
(completes the breakdown of glucose)
Oxidative phosphorylation
(accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
1. Glycolysis (color-coded teal throughout the
chapter)
2. Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle
(color-coded salmon)
3. Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport
and chemiosmosis (color-coded violet)
 Electrons
carried
via NADH

Glycolysis

Glucose Pyruvate

CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION

ATP

Substrate-level
phosphorylatio
n
 Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2

Pyruvate
Glycolysis Citric
oxidation
acid
Glucose Pyruvate Acetyl CoA cycle

CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION

ATP ATP

Substrate-level Substrate-level
phosphorylation phosphorylation
 Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2

Oxidative
Pyruvate
Glycolysis Citric phosphorylation:
oxidation
acid electron transport
Glucose Pyruvate Acetyl CoA cycle and
chemiosmosis

CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION

ATP ATP ATP

Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative

phosphorylation phosphorylation phosphorylation
 The process that generates most of the ATP is called
oxidative phosphorylation because it is powered by redox
reactions

RED-OX
Reduction
Oxidation
Oxidant + e- product
Reductan product +
Electron gained t e-
electrons lost,
Oxidation number decreased
oxidation number increased
 Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90%
of the ATP generated by cellular respiration
A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and
the citric acid cycle by substrate-level
phosphorylation
For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2 and
water by respiration, the cell makes up to 38
molecules of ATP
 In total, one sugar molecule can produce about 38
ATP
through the process of :
1)Glycolysis 2 ATP
2)Citric Acid Cycle 2 ATP
Oxidative Phosphorylation 34 ATP

Total equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ------> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
CELL RESPIRATION : ANAEROBIC
& FERMENTATION

Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells

to produce ATP without the use of oxygen.
Most cellular respiration requires O2 to produce ATP.
Without O2, the electron transport chain will cease to
operate.
In that case, glycolysis couples with fermentation or
anaerobic respiration to produce ATP.
 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION A
BACTERIAL ALTERNATIVE
Some bacteria use only parts of the Krebs cycle and the
ETC. They are anaerobes that do not use free O2 as their
final acceptor.
Anaerobic respiration -they use inorganic oxygen-
containing molecules such as nitrate, nitrite and sulfate.
Produce fewer ATP molecules than aerobic organisms.
 Anaerobic respiration - uses an electron transport
chain with a final electron acceptor other than O2, for
example sulfate.
Fermentation - uses substrate-level phosphorylation
instead of an electron transport chain to generate
ATP.
 BIOSYNTHESIS OF
CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEIN,
FATS, AND NUCLEIC ACIDS
The body uses small molecules to build other
substances
These small molecules may come directly from
food, from glycolysis, or from the citric acid cycle.
For most organisms, including microorganisms,
glucose is a major source of energy.
Microorganism can degrade (catabolize) any
organic substance for energy microbes found
almost everywhere on our planet, able to degrade
dead and decaying remains and wastes of all
organisms.
 FAT METABOLISM

Most microorganisms, like animals, can obtain

energy from lipids.
Fats are hydrolyzed to glycerol and three fatty acids.
The glycerol is metabolized by glycolysis.
Fatty acids are in turn oxidized by beta oxidation,
which results in the release of acetyl CoA then
enters the Krebs cycle.
 PROTEIN METABOLISM

Proteins also can be metabolized for energy.

They are first hydrolyzed into individual amino acids
by proteolytic (protein-digesting) enzymes. Then
the amino acids are deaminated.
The resulting deaminated molecules enter
glycolysis, fermentation or the Krebs cycle.