Slides prepared as collaboration between Drs. M. Wesolowski, J. Fajardo, and M.

Baillie

I try to identify myself with the atoms ...

I ask what I would do If I were a carbon atom or a
sodium atom.
-Linus Pauling

CHAPTER 3:
STOICHIOMETRY
Formula Weight (FW)
A formula weight is the sum of the atomic
weights for the atoms in a chemical formula.
So, the formula weight of calcium chloride, CaCl2,
would be
Ca: 1(40.08 amu)
+ Cl: 2(35.453 amu)
110.99 amu
Formula weights are generally reported for ionic
compounds.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses
(in amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.

1Na 22.99 amu

NaCl 1Cl + 35.45 amu
NaCl 58.44 amu

For any ionic compound

formula mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)

1 formula unit NaCl = 58.44 amu

1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl
3
 What is the formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2 ?

1 formula unit of Ca3(PO4)2

3 Ca 3 x 40.08
2P 2 x 30.97
8O + 8 x 16.00
310.18 amu

4
Molecular Weight (MW)
A molecular weight is the sum of the atomic
weights of the atoms in a molecule.
For the molecule ethane, C2H6, the molecular
weight would be

C: 2(12.011 amu)
+ H: 6(1.00794 amu)
30.070 amu

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Mole
6

The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that

contains the same number of entities as there are atoms
in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

The term entities refers to atoms, ions, molecules, formula

units, or electrons in fact, any type of particle.

One mole (1 mol) contains 6.022x1023 entities (to four

significant figures).
This number is called Avogadros number and is
abbreviated as N.
 A Mole of Familiar Substances
7

Figure 3.1

6.022x1023 entities
 A Mole of Familiar Substances
8

C S

Hg

Cu Fe

6.022x1023 entities
 eggs
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of shoes in grams
marbles
9 atoms
1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g
1 12C atom = 12.00 amu

1 mole 12C atoms = 12.00 g 12C

1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g of Li

For any element

atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
 Compounds and Molecules
10

For molecular elements and for compounds, the

formula is needed to determine the molar mass.

The molar mass of O2 = 2 x M of O

= 2 x 16.00
= 32.00 g/mol

The molar mass of SO2 = 1 x M of S + 2 x M of O

= 32.00 + 2(16.00)
= 64.00 g/mol
 Table 3.1 Information Contained in the Chemical Formula of Glucose,
C6H12O6 (M = 180.16 g/mol)
11

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O)

Atoms/molecule of 6 atoms 12 atoms 6 atoms

compound

Moles of atoms/mole 6 mol of atoms 12 mol of atoms 6 mol of atoms

of compound

Atoms/mole of 6(6.022x1023) atoms 12(6.022x1023) atoms 6(6.022x1023) atoms

compound

Mass/molecule of 6(12.01 amu) 12(1.008 amu) 6(16.00 amu) = 96.00

compound = 72.06 amu = 12.10 amu amu

Mass/mole of 72.06 g 12.10 g 96.00 g

compound

Mass% 72.06
40.00% 6.716%12.10
53.29% 96.00
100%
Mass%C TOTAL 100%
Mass%
40.00%
H 100%
Mass% O 100% 53.29%
6.716%
180.16 180.16 180.16
Avogadros Number

6.02 x 1023
1 mole of 12C has a
mass of 12.000 g.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Converting Between Units
Amount, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities
13

# of g
Mass (g) = # of moles x g
1 mol

# of moles = mass (g) x 1 mol

M
# of g

6.022x1023 entities
# of entities = # of moles x
1 mol

# of moles = # of entities x 1 mol

6.022x1023 entities
 Mass-mole-number relationships for elements.
14

Figure 3.2
 How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of C3H8O ?

1 mol C3H8O = (3 x 12) + (8 x 1) + 16 = 60 g C3H8O

1 mol C3H8O molecules = 8 mol H atoms
1 mol H = 6.022 x 1023 atoms H

1 mol C3H8O 8 mol H atoms 6.022 x 1023 H atoms

72.5 g C3H8O x x x =
60 g C3H8O 1 mol C3H8O 1 mol H atoms

5.82 x 1024 atoms H

15
 Sample Problem 3.1 Calculating the Mass of a Given Amount
of an Element
16

PROBLEM: Silver (Ag) is used in jewelry and tableware but no longer in

U.S. coins. How many grams of Ag are in 0.0342 mol of
Ag?

PLAN: To convert mol of Ag to mass of Ag in g we need the molar mass of Ag.

amount (mol) of Ag

multiply by M of Ag (107.9 g/mol)

mass (g) of Ag
SOLUTION:

107.9 g Ag
0.0342 mol Ag x = 3.69 g Ag
1 mol Ag
 Sample Problem 3.2 Calculating the Number of Entities in a
Given Amount of an Element
17

PROBLEM: Gallium (Ga) is a key element in solar panels, calculators, and

other light-sensitive electronic devices. How many Ga atoms
are in 2.85 mmol of gallium?

PLAN: To convert mol of Ga to number of Ga atoms we need to use Avogadros

number.

mol of Ga

multiply by 6.022x1023 atoms/mol

atoms of Ga
 Sample Problem 3.2

18

SOLUTION:

2.85 mmol Ga x 1x10-3 mol x 6.022x1023 Ga atoms

1 mmol 1 mol Ga

= 1.72 x 1021 Ga atoms

 Sample Problem 3.3 Calculating the Number of Entities in a
Given Mass of an Element
19

PROBLEM: Iron (Fe) is the main component of steel and is therefore the most
important metal in society; it is also essential in the body. How many
Fe atoms are in 95.8 g of Fe?

PLAN: The number of atoms cannot be calculated directly from the mass. We
must first determine the number of moles of Fe atoms in the sample and
then use Avogadros number.

mass (g) of Fe
divide by M of Fe (55.85 g/mol)

amount (mol) of Fe
multiply by 6.022x1023 atoms/mol

atoms of Fe
 Sample Problem 3.3

20

SOLUTION:

95.8 g Fe x 1 mol Fe
= 1.72 mol Fe
55.85 g Fe

1.72 mol Fe x 6.022x10 atoms Fe

23

1 mol Fe

= 1.04 x 1024 atoms Fe

 Amount-mass-number relationships for compounds
21

Figure 3.3
Percent Composition
One can find the percentage of the mass of a
compound that comes from each of the elements
in the compound by using this equation:

(number of atoms)(atomic weight)

% Element = x 100
(FW of the compound)

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Importance of Mass %
23

Mass % of element X =

atoms of X in formula x atomic mass of X (amu)

x 100
molecular (or formula) mass of compound (amu)

Mass % of element X =

moles of X in formula x molar mass of X (g/mol)

x 100
mass (g) of 1 mol of compound
Regardless of the Source

Calcium carbonate

CaCO3

Analysis by Mass Mass Fraction Percent by Mass

(grams/20.0 g) (parts/1.00 part) (parts/100 parts)

8.0 g calcium 0.40 calcium 40% calcium

2.4 g carbon 0.12 carbon 12% carbon

9.6 g oxygen 0.48 oxygen 48% oxygen

20.0 g 1.00 part by mass 100% by mass

Percent Composition
So the percentage of carbon in ethane, C2H6, is

(2)(12.011 amu)
%C =
(30.070 amu)

24.022 amu
= x 100
30.070 amu

= 79.887%

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole
of the compound
2 x (12.01 g)
%C = x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
6 x (1.008 g)
%H = x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
1 x (16.00 g)
%O = x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g

C2H6O 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%

26
 Empirical and Molecular Formulas
27

The empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound

that agrees with the elemental analysis. It shows the lowest
whole number of moles and gives the relative number of atoms
of each element present.
The empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide is HO.

The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms

of each element in a molecule of the compound.
The molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide is H2O2.
Calculating Empirical Formulas

One can calculate the empirical formula from the

percent composition.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas
Determine the empirical formula of a compound
that has the following % composition by mass:
K: 24.75%,
Mn 34.77%,
O: 40.51%.

1 mol K
nK = 24.75 g K x = 0.6330 mol K
39.10 g K

1 mol Mn
nMn = 34.77 g Mn x = 0.6329 mol Mn
54.94 g Mn

1 mol O
nO = 40.51 g O x = 2.532 mol O
16.00 g O

29
 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas

nK = 0.6330, nMn = 0.6329, nO = 2.532

0.6330
K: ~ 1.0
~
0.6329

0.6329
Mn : = 1.0
0.6329

2.532
O: ~ 4.0
~
0.6329

KMnO4

30
Calculating Empirical Formulas

The compound para-aminobenzoic acid (you may have seen it listed as

PABA on your bottle of sunscreen) is composed of carbon (61.31%),
hydrogen (5.14%), nitrogen (10.21%), and oxygen (23.33%). Find the
empirical formula of PABA.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Calculating Empirical Formulas

Assuming 100.00 g of para-aminobenzoic acid,

C: 61.31 g x = 5.105 1mol

molC
12.01 g

1 mol
H: 5.14 g x = 5.09 mol H
1.01 g

N: 10.21 g x = 0.72881 mol

mol N
14.01 g

O: 23.33 g x = 1.4561mol
molO
16.00 g
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
Calculate the mole ratio by dividing by the smallest number of moles:

5.105 mol
C: = 7.005 7
0.7288 mol

5.09 mol
H: = 6.984 7
0.7288 mol

N: 0.7288 mol
= 1.000
0.7288 mol

C7H7NO2
1.458 mol
O: = 2.001 2
0.7288 mol
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
Caffeine has an elemental analysis of 49.48% carbon, 5.190% hydrogen, 28.85%
nitrogen, and the rest oxygen. It has a molar mass of 194.19 g/mol. What is the
molecular formula of caffeine?
Assuming 100.00 g of caffeine,

C: 49.48 g x = 4.120 1mol

molC
12.01 g

H: 5.190 g x 1 mol
= 5.14 mol H
1.01 g

N: 28.85 g x = 2.059 1mol

molN
14.01 g

1 mol
O: 16.47 g x = 1.029 mol O
16.00 g
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
Caffeine has an elemental analysis of 49.48% carbon, 5.190% hydrogen, 16.47%
oxygen, and 28.85% nitrogen. It has a molar mass of 194.19 g/mol. What is the
molecular formula of caffeine?

C: 4.120 mol 4
= 4.004
1.029 mol

5.09 mol
H: = 4.947 5
1.029 mol

2.059 mol
N: mol 2
= 2.001
1.029
C4H5N2O

1.029 mol
O: = 1 mol
1.029
 Is the empirical formula the molecular formula
36

Is C4H5N2O the molecular formula?

Calculate the molar mass of the empirical formula;

Molecular formula molar mass = n(empirical formula molar mass)

Therefore, n = molecular formula molar mass

empirical formula molar mass

Therefore, n = molecular formula molar mass = 194.19 g/mol 2

empirical formula molar mass 97.11 g/mol

Molecular Formula: C8H10N4O2

 Anatomy of a Chemical Reaction
37

Reactants = starting materials for a reaction

Products = what is made in a reaction
Special symbols/text to denote heat , C, phase
(s, l, g or aq), catalyst, etc.
Stoichiometric coefficients to balance the
equation.
 Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on

the left side and the correct formula(s) for the
product(s) on the right side of the equation.
Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas

(coefficients) to make the number of atoms of
each element the same on both sides of the
equation. Do not change the subscripts.
2C2H6 NOT C4H12
38
 Balancing Chemical Equations

3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in

only one reactant and one product.
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O start with C or H but not O

2 carbon 1 carbon
multiply CO2 by 2
on left on right

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O

6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
on left on right multiply H2O by 3

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

39
 Balancing Chemical Equations

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or

more reactants or products.
7
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O multiply O2 by
2

2 oxygen 4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

on left (2x2) (3x1) on right

7 remove fraction
C2H6 + O 2CO2 + 3H2O
2 2 multiply both sides by 2

2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

40
 Stoichiometric Conversion Factors
41

Balance the following equation:

2 NH3(g) + 5/2 O2 (g) 2 NO (g) + 3 H2O (g)

4 NH3(g) + 5 O2 (g 4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (g)

 Stoichiometric Conversion Factors
42

Given:
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)
How many moles of water form for every 4 moles of
ammonia reacted?
6H O
6 or 2

4 NH 3

Using a balanced chemical equation, we can

determine the number of moles/molecules expected to
react from any other species involved in that reaction.
 Stoichiometric Conversion Factors
43

Given:
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)
How many kg of NO are expected to be produced from
combustion of 6.50 kg NH3 in the presence of excess O2?

PLAN: mass NH3 mol NO mass NO

6.50 kg x 103 g x 1 mol NH3 x 4 mol NO x 30.01 g NO x 1 kg
1 kg 17.04 g NH3 4 mol NH3 1 mol NO 103 g

= 11.4 kg NO expected
Theoretical Yield
The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of
product that can be made.
In other words, its the amount of product possible as
calculated through the stoichiometry problem.
This is different from the actual yield, which is the
amount one actually produces and measures.

actual yield
Percent yield = x 100
theoretical yield
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Stoichiometric Conversion Factors
45

Given:
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)

Lets say you only collect 8.35 kg of NO. What is the % yield?

% Yield = actual yield x 100%

theoretical yield

% Yield = 8.35 kg x 100% = 73.2 %

11.4 kg
 Why is Yield Less than 100%?
46

Two main types of reactions:

Those that go to completion (relatively few do this).
H2 O
NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

All the rest, due to:

Competing reactions going on in container.
Dependence of reaction on some equilibrium.
Loss of materials at some step in reaction process or
product purification/transfer.

HNO2 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + NO2- (aq)

 Mole Ratio
47

Stoichiometric conversion factors are called mole

ratios
In the equation:
CO(g) + 2 H2(g) CH3OH(l)
1 mol CO reacts per 2 mol H2
1 mol CO reacts per 1 mol CH3OH forming
2 mol H2 reacts per 1 mol CH3OH forming

1 mol 1 mol CO 2 mol

CO H2
1 mol
2 mol H2 CH3OH 1 mol
CH OH
Using Mole Ratios
Mole ratios help with
calculations when determining
moles needed or produced

CO(g) + 2 H2(g) CH3OH(l)

If 6 moles of H2 react in the presence of CO, how many

moles of CH3OH are made?
1 mol CH3OH
6 mole H2 x = 3 mole CH3OH
48
2 mol H2
 Methanol burns in air according to the equation

2CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 4H2O

If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion, what mass of water is
produced?

grams CH3OH moles CH3OH moles H2O grams H2O

molar mass coefficients molar mass

CH3OH chemical equation H2O

1 mol CH3OH 4 mol H2O 18.02 g H2O

209 g CH3OH x x x =
32.05 g CH3OH 2 mol CH3OH 1 mol H2O

235 g H2O

49
 Limiting Reagent
50

If N2 + 3H2 2NH3, how many NH3 can be made based on

the image below?
 Limiting Reagent
51

If N2 + 3H2 2NH3, how much NH3 can be made?

N2 is in excess, H2 is the limiting reagent.

Limiting Reactants
In the example below, the O2 would be the excess
reagent. 2H2 + O2 2H2O

10 mol H2 x 1 mol O2 = 5 mol O2 needed to completely consume 10 mol H2

2 mol H2 have 7 mol O2 (excess); thus H2 is limiting.
 In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3

2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2Fe

Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.

g Al mol Al mol Fe2O3 needed g Fe2O3 needed

OR

g Fe2O3 mol Fe2O3 mol Al needed g Al needed

1 mol Al 1 mol Fe2O3 160. g Fe2O3

124 g Al x x x = 367 g Fe2O3
27.0 g Al 2 mol Al 1 mol Fe2O3

Start with 124 g Al need 367 g Fe2O3

53 Have more Fe2O3 (601 g) so Al is limiting reagent

 Use limiting reagent (Al) to calculate amount of aluminum oxide that can be
formed.

g Al mol Al mol Al2O3 g Al2O3

2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2Fe

1 mol Al 1 mol Al2O3 102. g Al2O3

124 g Al x x x = 234 g Al2O3
27.0 g Al 2 mol Al 1 mol Al2O3

At this point, all the Al is consumed and Fe2O3

remains in excess.

54
 Sample Problem 3.12
Flowchart:
Silberbergs Method for Balancing Chemical Equations

Within the cylinders of a cars engine, the hydrocarbon octane

PROBLEM:
(C8H18), one of many components of gasoline, mixes with oxygen
from the air and burns to form carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Write a balanced equation for this reaction.
PLAN: SOLUTION:
translate the statement C8H18 + O2 CO2 + H2O

25
balance the atoms C8H18 + O2 8 CO2 + 9 H2 O
2

adjust the coefficients 2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O

check the atoms balance 2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O

55 specify states of matter 2C8H18(l) + 25O2 (g) 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O (g)
 Class Vote
56

Chemical equations are balanced to reflect conservation of

matter
To balance the following reaction equation, which set of
coefficients should be used?
2 __ Al +3__ CuSO4 __ Al2(SO4)3 + __3Cu

A. 2, 1, 1, 1
B. 2, 3, 1, 3
C. 2, 2, 1, 2
D. 2, 3, 0, 3
 Class Vote
57

Syngas (a mixture of CO and H2) is formed by

passing steam over impure carbon.
C (s) + H2O (g) CO (g) + H2 (g)
If 1.00 kg of both reactants are present at the start
of the reaction, which chemical species is limiting?

@12.01 g/mol, 1 kg = 83.3 mol

A. C (s)
@18.02 g/mol, 1 kg = 55.5 mol
B. H2O (g)
103 g C x 1 mol C = 83.3 mol C 103 g H2O x 1 mol H2O = 55.5 mol H2O
12.01 g C 18.02 g H2O
 Chemical Reactions In Agriculture
58

Haber-Borsch process of converting N2 and H2 into

NH3 (Fritz Haber, Nobel Prize 1918).
Reaction = man-made nitrogen fixation.
Process first possible c. 1910. (circa WWI)
Explosive production
Now used to make primary components of
fertilizers.
Balance the equation:

__N (g) +
N22(g) + 3__HH(g)
2
(g) __ NH
2 NH3(g)
3 (g)
2
 History of Nitrogen Fertilizer Production
59

Pre-1910

Post-1910
 Production of Ammonia
(1 tonne = 103 kg)
60

Ammonium
Phosphate fertilizer
production improved
(c. 1950-60)

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nitrogen/:
 Total Yearly Ammonia Production
61

2012 = 198,000,000,000 kg ammonia produced

world-wide.
In liquid form, ~ volume of a small lake (if density is
0.86 kg/m3 at 25 C, 152 km3)
Volume of crude oil on Earth: ~ 300 km3
This equates to nearly
20 kg/human/year
(about 45 lbs).
20 kg x 1 lb = 44.1 lbs

0.453592
 Question
62

How many kilograms of N2 and H2 are required to

produce 20.0 kg of NH3?

PLAN:
Write and balance chemical equation.
Convert kg NH3 to moles.
Calculate moles of N2 and H2 needed using mole ratios.
Convert moles of N2 and H2 needed to kg.
 Question
63

Balance the equation:

Magnetite
(Fe3O4)
__N2(g) + __3 H2(g) __ NH32(g)

Convert kg NH3 to moles NH3.

20.0 kg NH3 x 10 3
g NH3 1 mol NH3 = 1170
x
1 kg NH3 17.04 g NH3 mol NH
3
 Question
64

Solve for kg of N2 and H2 using mole ratios:

Magnetite
(Fe3O4)
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
1 mol N2 28.02 g N2 1 kg
1170 mol NH3 x x x = 16.4 kg N2
2 mol NH3 1 mol N2 1000 g

3 mol H2 2.02 g H2 1 kg
1170 mol NH3 x x x = 3.55 kg H2
2 mol NH3 1 mol N2 1000 g
 Question
65

Per-Human Yearly Totals:

Magnetite
(Fe3O4)
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
16.4 kg 3.55 kg 20.0 kg 8 kg
Mass is conserved
Given these amounts of reactants, actual mass of
NH3 produced (at 400 C and 200 atm) is only
8.00 kg.
Percent yield = 8.00 kg/20.0 kg x 100% = 40.0 %
 Practice
66

4NH3 + 5O2 6H2O + 4NO

How many moles of NO are produced if 4 moles
NH3 are burned in 20 mol O2?
4 moles of NO are produced

Which reactant is limiting?

NH3 is limiting
5 moles of O2 will be used, so 15 moles of O2 will
remain
 Practice
67

4NH3 + 5O2 6H2O + 4NO

How many grams of NO are produced if 4 moles
NH3 are burned in 20 mol O2?

4 mol NH3 x 4 mol NO x 30.01 g NO = 120.04 g

4 mol NH3 1 mol NO NO
 Practice
68

4NH3 + 5O2 6H2O + 4NO

How many grams of NO are produced if 20.0 g NH3
are burned in 30.0 g O2?

FIRST: Which reactant is limiting? How could we

determine this?
 Practice
69

4NH3 + 5O2 6H2O + 4NO

How many grams of NO are produced if 20.0 g NH3
are burned in 30.0 g O2?
Question: What mass of O2 is required to completely
consume 20.0 g ammonia?
20.0 g NH3 x 1 mol NH3 x 5 mol O2 x 32.00 g O2 = 46.9 g O2 required
17.04 g NH3 4 mol NH3 mol We have only 30.0 g;

O2 is the limiting reactant

 Practice
70

4NH3 + 5O2 6H2O + 4NO

How many grams of NO are produced if 20.0 g NH3
is burned in 30.0 g O2?
30.0 g O2 x 1 mol O2 x 4 mol NO x 30.02 g NO = 22.5 g NO predicted
32.00 g O2 5 mol O2 mol

Calculate the % error if 16.3 g of NO are collected.

% error = actual yield = 16.3 g NO x 100% = 72.4%

theoretical yield 22.5 g NO
 Summary: Utility of Mole Ratio
& Stoichiometry

71
Figure 3.7
 Solution Stoichiometry

Many reactions occur in solution.

A solution consists of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent.
The concentration of a solution is given by the quantity
of solute present in a given quantity of solution.
Molarity (M) is often used to express concentration.

Molarity = moles solute mol solute

M=
liters of solution L soln
Molarity
Two solutions can contain the same compounds
but be quite different because the proportions of
those compounds are different.
Molarity is one way to measure the
concentration of a solution:

moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Solution Stoichiometry

What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL of a

2.80 M KI solution?

M KI M KI
volume of KI solution moles KI grams KI

1L 2.80 mol KI 166 g KI

500. mL x x x = 232 g KI
1000 mL 1 L soln 1 mol KI

74
Mixing a Solution

To create a solution of a known

molarity, one weighs out a known
mass (and, therefore, number of
moles) of the solute.
The solute is added to a
volumetric flask, and solvent is
added to the line on the neck of
the flask.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Preparing a Solution of Known Concentration

76 Making a Solution
Dilution
One can also dilute a more concentrated solution
Using a pipet to deliver a volume of the solution to a new
volumetric flask, and
Adding solvent to the line on the neck of the new flask.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Dilution
The molarity of the new solution can be determined as shown:
Mc Vc = Md Vd,
where Mc and Md are the molarity of the concentrated and dilute
solutions, respectively, and Vc and Vd are the volumes of the two
solutions.

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated
solution from a more concentrated solution.

Dilution

Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

79
MiVi = MfVf
 How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.200 M HNO3 from a
stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 4.00 M Mf = 0.200 M Vf = 0.0600 L Vi = ? L

MfVf
Vi = = 0.200 M x 0.0600 L = 0.00300 L = 3.00 mL
Mi 4.00 M

Dilute 3.00 mL of acid with water to a

total volume of 60.0 mL.
80
 Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by mixing 1.5 g of NaCl in 500.0 mL of
water.

81

First calculate the moles of solute:

1.5 g NaCl x 1 mole NaCl = 0.0257 moles of NaCl
58.45 g NaCl

Next convert mL to L: 0.500 L of solution

Last, plug the appropriate values into the correct variables
in the equation:
M = n / V = 0.0257 moles / 0.500 L = 0.051 mol/L
 MOLARITY
M=n/V = mol
/ L
82

How many grams of LiOH is needed to prepare 250.0 mL of a 1.25 M

solution?
First calculate the moles of solute needed:
M = n / V , now rearrange to solve for n: n = MV
n = (1.25 mol / L) (0.2500 L)
= 0.3125 moles of solute needed

Then, calculate the molar mass of LiOH: 23.95 g/mol

Finally, use diminsional analysis to solve for mass:

0.3125 moles x 23.95 g LiOH = 7.48 g of LiOH
1 mol LiOH
 MOLARITY
M=n/V = mol
/ L
83

What is the molarity of a 47.0% HI solution (by mass)

(density25C = 1.50 g/mL)?
First calculate the mass of solute in the 47.0% solution using the density. The
density of the solution is 1.50 g/mL, but only 47.0% of the solution is the solute:
47.0% of 1.50 g/mL = (0.470) (1.50 g/mL) = 0.705 g/mL density of
solute
Since molarity is given in moles per liter and not grams we must convert the
g/mL to mol/mL using the molar mass.
0.705 g x 1 mole = 0.00551 mol/mL
mL 128 g
Next convert mL to L:
0.00551 mol x 1000 mL = 5.51 mol = 5.51 M
mL 1L L
 MOLARITY & DILUTION
M1V1 = M2V2
84

The act of diluting a solution is to simply add more water

(the solvent) thus leaving the amount of solute unchanged.
Since the amount or moles of solute before dilution (nb)
and the moles of solute after the dilution (na) are the same:
nb = na
And the moles for any solution can be calculated by n=MV
A relationship can be established such that
MbVb = nb = na = MaVa
Or simply : MbVb = MaVa
 MOLARITY
& Dilution
85

Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by diluting 25.0 mL

of 0.0500 M potassium iodide with 50.0 mL of water (the densities
are similar).

M1 = 0.0500 mol/L M2 = ?
V1 = 25.0 mL V2 = 50.0 + 25.0 = 75.0 mL
M1V1 = M2V2

M1 V1 = M2 = (0.0500 mol/L) (25.0 mL) = 0.0167 M of KI

V2 75.0 mL
 MOLARITY
& dilution
86

Given a 6.00 M HCl solution, how would you prepare 250.0 mL of

0.150 M HCl?

M1 = 6.00 mol/L M2 = 0.150

V1 = ? mL V2 = 250.0 mL
M1V1 = M2V2

M2 V2 = V1 = (0.150 mol/L) (250.0 mL) = 6.25 mL of 6 M HCl

M1 6.00 mol/L
You would need 6.25 mL of the 6.00 M HCl reagent which would
be added to about 100 mL of DI water in a 250.0 mL graduated
cylinder then more water would be added to the mixture until the
bottom of the menicus is at 250.0 mL. Mix well.
Titrations

Titration: the process of analyzing composition by

measuring the volume of one solution needed to
completely react with another solution.

This is a special case of a Limiting Reagent!

Often the reaction of an acid with a base.
Titration Animation

30.0 mL NaOH x 0.200 mol NaOH x 1 mol HCl x 1 x 103 mL = 0.100 M

103 mL 1 mol NaOH 60.0 mL L

87
Titrations
Analyte: the solution of unknown concentration but known
volume.

Titrant: the solution of known concentration.

Analyte + Titrant Products

Add titrant until all of the analyte has reacted, then detect
the excess of titrant.
88
Titrations
Equivalence Point: the point at which exactly the right
volume of titrant has been added to complete the
reaction.

Indicator: substance that changes color when an excess

of titrant has been added (phenolphthalein, bromocresol
green).

89
Titrations
Titration Calculations:

1. Find the number of moles of titrant added to reach the

endpoint.
2. Determine the moles of analyte that must have been
present (use stoichiometric coefficients).
3. Determine the concentration of analyte that must have been
present in the flask (use the volume of analyte).
4. Calculate the concentration of analyte in the original
sample.
90
 Titrations
Example #1: 14.84 mL of an HCl solution of unknown
concentration is titrated with standard NaOH solution.
At the equivalence point, 25.0 mL of the 0.675 M
NaOH has been added. Calculate the concentration of
the HCl solution.=
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Titrant = ? Analyte = ?
NaOH HCl

25.0 mL NaOH x 0.675 mol NaOH x 1 mol HCl x 1 x 103 mL = 1.14 M HCl
103 mL 1 mol NaOH 14.84 mL L

91
 Titrations
Example #2: An antacid tablet containing sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and weighing 4.00 g is dissolved
in water. The solution is titrated to the equivalence point
with 50.0 mL of 0.200 M HCl. Calculate the mass% of
sodium bicarbonate in the tablet.
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
Titrant = ? Analyte = ?
HCl NaHCO3

50.0 mL NaOH x 0.200 mol HCl x 1 mol NaHCO3 x 84.02 g NaHCO3 = 0.8402 g
103 mL 1 mol HCl mol NaHCO 3
% NaHCO3 = 0.8402 g x 100% = 21.0 %
4.00 g
What volume of a 1.420 M NaOH solution is required
to titrate 25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4 solution?

WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION!

H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4

M rxn M
volume acid moles acid moles base volume base
acid coef. base

4.50 mol H2SO4 2 mol NaOH 1000 ml soln

25.00 mL x x x = 158 mL
1000 mL soln 1 mol H2SO4 1.420 mol NaOH
93
 Titrations can be used in the analysis of

94

Acid-base reactions
H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4

Redox reactions

5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O

16.42 mL of 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution is needed to
oxidize 25.00 mL of an acidic FeSO4 solution. What is
the molarity of the iron solution?
WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION!
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O

M rxn V
volume red moles red moles oxid M oxid
red coef. oxid

16.42 mL = 0.01642 L 25.00 mL = 0.02500 L

0.1327 mol KMnO4 5 mol Fe2+ 1

0.01642 L x x x = 0.4358 M
1L 1 mol KMnO4 0.02500 L Fe2+
95
Figure 3.9 Summary of mass-mole-number-volume
relationships in solution.
97
 Nobel Prize-Winning Reaction
98

o-bromostyrene & o-iodonitrobenzene

74 (percent yield)