5 - Elasticity and Its Application

CHAPTE
R 5
Elasticity and its
Application
Microeonomics
PRINCIPLES OF
N. Gregory
Mankiw
Premium PowerPoint Slides
by Ron Cronovich
2009 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved
In this chapter,
look for the answers to these
questions:
What is elasticity? What kinds of issues can
elasticity help us understand?
What is the price elasticity of demand?
How is it related to the demand curve?
How is it related to revenue & expenditure?
What is the price elasticity of supply?
How is it related to the supply curve?
What are the income and cross-price elasticities of
demand?
2
A scenario
You
You design
design websites
websites forfor local
local businesses.
businesses.
You
You charge
charge 12000
12000 per per website,
website,
and
and currently
currently sell
sell 12
12 websites
websites per per month.
month.
Your
Your costs
costs are
are rising
rising
(including
(including the
the opportunity
opportunity cost cost of
of your
your time),
time),
so
so you
you consider
consider raising
raising thethe price
price toto 15000.
15000.
The
The law
law of
of demand
demand says says thatthat you
you wont
wont sell
sell as
as
many
many websites
websites ifif you
you raise
raise your
your price.
price.
How
How many
many fewer
fewer websites?
websites? How How much
much will
will your
your
revenue
revenue fall,
fall, or
or might
might itit increase?
increase?
3
Elasticity
Basic idea:
Elasticity measures how much one variable
responds to changes in another variable.
One type of elasticity measures how much
demand for your websites will fall if you raise
your price.
Definition:
Elasticity is a numerical measure of the
responsiveness of Qd or Qs to one of its
determinants.
ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 4

Price Elasticity of Demand
Price elasticity Percentage change in Qd
=
of demand Percentage change in P
Price elasticity of demand measures how

much Qd responds to a change in P.
Loosely speaking, it measures the price-

sensitivity of buyers demand.

=
P
Example:
P rises
Price elasticity P2
by 10%
P1
of demand D
equals
15% Q
= 1.5 Q2 Q1
10%
Q falls
by 15%
=
P
Along
Along aa DD curve,
curve, PP and
and QQ
move
move in in opposite
opposite directions,
directions, P2
which
which would
would make
make price
price
elasticity P1
elasticity negative.
negative.
We D
We will
will drop
drop the
the minus
minus sign
sign
and
and report
report all
all price
price Q
elasticities Q2 Q1
elasticities as
as
positive
positive numbers.
numbers.

Calculating Percentage
Changes
Standard method
of computing the
Demand for percentage (%) change:
your websites
P end value start value
x 100%
start value
B
15000
12000 A Going from A to B,
the % change in P equals
D
(1500012000)/12000 =
Q 25%
8 12

Changes
Problem:
The standard method gives
Demand for different answers depending
your websites on where you start.
P
From A to B,
15000
B P rises 25%, Q falls 33%,
A elasticity = 33/25 = 1.33
12000
From B to A,
D
P falls 20%, Q rises 50%,
Q elasticity = 50/20 = 2.50
8 12

Changes
So, we instead use the midpoint method:
end value start value
x 100%
midpoint
The midpoint is the number halfway between
the start & end values, the average of those
values.
It doesnt matter which value you use as the
start and which as the end you get the
same answer either way!

Changes
Using the midpoint method, the % change
in P equals
15000 12000
x 100% = 22.2%
13500
The % change in Q equals

12 8
x 100% = 40.0%
10
The price elasticity of demand equals
40/22.2 = 1.8

ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Calculate an elasticity
Use the following information to
calculate the price elasticity
of demand for hotel rooms:
if P = 700, Qd = 5000
if P = 900, Qd = 3000
12
ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Answers
Use midpoint method to calculate
% change in Qd
(5000 3000)/4000 = 50%
% change in P
(900 700)/800 = 25%
The price elasticity of demand equals
50%
= 2.0
25%
13
What determines price
elasticity?
To learn the determinants of price elasticity,
we look at a series of examples.
Each compares two common goods.
In each example:
Suppose the prices of both goods rise by 20%.
The good for which Qd falls the most (in percent)
has the highest price elasticity of demand.
Which good is it? Why?
What lesson does the example teach us about the
determinants of the price elasticity of demand?

EXAMPLE 1:
Breakfast cereal vs. water
The prices of both of these goods rise by 20%.
For which good does Qd drop the most? Why?
Breakfast cereal has close substitutes
(e.g., pancakes, Eggs, pizza),
so buyers can easily switch if the price rises.
water has no close substitutes,
so consumers would probably not
buy much less if its price rises.
Lesson: Price elasticity is higher when close
substitutes are available.

EXAMPLE 2:
Blue Jeans vs. Clothing
The prices of both goods rise by 20%.
For a narrowly defined good such as
blue jeans, there are many substitutes
(khakis, shorts, Speedos).
There are fewer substitutes available for
broadly defined goods.
(There arent too many substitutes for clothing,
other than living in a nudist colony.)
Lesson: Price elasticity is higher for narrowly
defined goods than broadly defined ones.
EXAMPLE 3:
Insulin vs. Caribbean Cruises
The prices of both of these goods rise by 20%.
To millions of diabetics, insulin is a necessity.
A rise in its price would cause little or no
decrease in demand.
A cruise is a luxury. If the price rises,
some people will forego it.
Lesson: Price elasticity is higher for luxuries
than for necessities.

EXAMPLE 4:
Gasoline in the Short Run vs.
Gasoline in the Long Run
The price of gasoline rises 20%. Does Qd drop
more in the short run or the long run? Why?
Theres not much people can do in the
short run, other than ride the bus or carpool.
In the long run, people can buy smaller cars
or live closer to where they work.
Lesson: Price elasticity is higher in the
long run than the short run.

Factors Affecting Price Elasticity
Of Demand
Nature of the Commodity (necessities, comfort and
luxuries)
Availability of Substitutes
Variety in uses of commodity
Postponement
Influence of habits
Proportion of Income spent on a commodity
Range of prices
Elements of time
Practical Importance of the Concept of Price Elasticity Of
Demand
The concept is helpful in taking Business

Decisions
Importance of the concept in formatting Tax
Policy of the government
For determining the rewards of the Factors of
Production
To determine the Terms of Trades Between the
Two Countries
Practical Importance of the Concept
of Price Elasticity Of Demand
Distribution of burden of taxation

Determination of Rates of Foreign Exchange
For Nationalization of Certain Industries
Paradox of poverty
Degree (Types) of Price Elasticity of demand
Perfectly Elastic Demand It is a situation where the slightly rise in price
causes the quantity demanded fall to zero.
Perfectly Inelastic Demand - It is a situation where a change in price
causes no change in the quantity demanded.
Unitary Elastic Demand - It is a situation when percentage change in
quantity demanded is equal to the percentage change in price.
Greater than Unitary Elastic Price Elasticity of Demand is said to be
Greater than Unitary Elastic when the percentage change in quantity
demanded is greater than the percentage change in price.
Less than Unitary Elastic - It is a situation when percentage change in
quantity demanded is less than percentage change in price.
Perfectly inelastic demand (one
extreme case)
Price elasticity % change in Q 0%
= = =0
% change in P 10%
of demand
D curve: P
D
vertical
P1
Consumers
price sensitivity: P2
none
P falls Q
Elasticity: by 10% Q1
0 Q changes
by 0%
Inelastic demand
Price elasticity % change in Q < 10%
= = <1
% change in P 10%
of demand
D curve: P
relatively steep
P1
Consumers
relatively low D
P falls Q
Elasticity: by 10% Q 1 Q2
<1
Q rises less
than 10%
Unit elastic
demand
= = =1
% change in P 10%
of demand
D curve: P
intermediate slope
P1
Consumers
intermediate D
P falls Q
Elasticity: by 10% Q1 Q2
1
Q rises by 10%

Elastic demand
Price elasticity % change in Q > 10%
= = >1
% change in P 10%
of demand
D curve: P
relatively flat
P1
Consumers
price sensitivity: P2 D
relatively high
P falls Q
>1
Q rises more
than 10%
Perfectly elastic demand (the other
extreme)
Price elasticity % change in Q any %
= = = infinity
% change in P 0%
of demand
D curve: P
horizontal
P2 = P1 D
Consumers
price sensitivity:
extreme
P changes Q
infinity
Q changes
by any %
Elasticity of a Linear Demand
Curve
P The slope
200% of a linear
$30 E = = 5.0
40% demand
67% curve is
20 E = = 1.0 constant,
67%
but its
40% elasticity
10 E = = 0.2
200% is not.
$0 Q
0 20 40 60

Price Elasticity and Total
Revenue
Continuing our scenario, if you raise your price
from 12000 to 15000, would your revenue rise or
fall?
Revenue = P x Q
A price increase has two effects on revenue:
Higher P means more revenue on each unit
you sell.
But you sell fewer units (lower Q),
due to Law of Demand.
Which of these two effects is bigger?
It depends on the price elasticity of demand.

Revenue
Price elasticity Percentage change in Q
=
Revenue = P x Q
If demand is elastic, then
price elast. of demand > 1
% change in Q > % change in P
The fall in revenue from lower Q is greater
than the increase in revenue from higher P,
so revenue falls.
Revenue
Elastic demand increased
Demand
revenue
(elasticity = 1.8) P due to
for your
websites
higher P
If P = 12000, lost
revenue
Q = 12 and 15000 due to
lower Q
revenue = 1,44000.
12000
If P = 15000, D
Q = 8 and
revenue = 120000.
When D is elastic, Q
8 12
a price increase
causes revenue to fall.
Revenue
Price elasticity Percentage change in Q
=
Revenue = P x Q
If demand is inelastic, then
price elast. of demand < 1
% change in Q < % change in P
The fall in revenue from lower Q is smaller
than the increase in revenue from higher P,
so revenue rises.
In our example, suppose that Q only falls to 10
(instead of 8) when you raise your price to 15000.
Revenue
Now, demand is increased revenue
less elastic: due to higher P
elasticity = 0.82 P
Demand for
your websites
If P = 12000,
Q = 12 and revenue =
lost revenue
144000. 15000 due to lower Q
12000
If P = 15000,
Q = 10 and
D
revenue = 150000.
When D is inelastic,
Q
a price increase 10 12
causes revenue to rise.
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Elasticity and
expenditure/revenue
A. Pharmacies raise the price of insulin by 10%.
Does total expenditure on insulin rise or fall?
B. As a result of a fare war, the price of a luxury
cruise falls 20%.
Does luxury cruise companies total revenue
rise or fall?
34
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Answers
A. Pharmacies raise the price of insulin by 10%.
Does total expenditure on insulin rise or fall?
Expenditure = P x Q
Since demand is inelastic, Q will fall less
than 10%, so expenditure rises.
35
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Answers
B. As a result of a fare war, the price of a luxury
cruise falls 20%.
Does luxury cruise companies total revenue
rise or fall?
Revenue = P x Q
The fall in P reduces revenue,
but Q increases, which increases revenue.
Which effect is bigger?
Since demand is elastic, Q will increase more
than 20%, so revenue rises.
36
APPLICATION: Does Drug Interdiction
Increase or Decrease Drug-Related
Crime?
One side effect of illegal drug use is crime:
Users often turn to crime to finance their habit.
We examine two policies designed to reduce
illegal drug use and see what effects they have
on drug-related crime.
For simplicity, we assume the total dollar value
of drug-related crime equals total expenditure
on drugs.
Demand for illegal drugs is inelastic, due to
addiction issues.
Policy 1: Interdiction
Interdiction new value of drug-
reduces Price of related crime
the supply Drugs S2
D1
of drugs. S1
Since demand P2
for drugs is
inelastic, initial value
P1
P rises propor- of drug-
tionally more related
than Q falls. crime
Result: an increase in Q2 Q 1 Quantity

total spending on drugs, of Drugs
and in drug-related crime
Policy 2: Education
new value of drug-
Education Price of related crime
reduces the Drugs
demand for D2 D1
drugs. S
P and Q fall.
P1 initial value
Result: of drug-
A decrease in P2 related
total spending crime
on drugs, and
in drug-related Q2 Q 1 Quantity
crime. of Drugs

Price Elasticity of Supply
Price elasticity Percentage change in Qs
=
of supply Percentage change in P
Price elasticity of supply measures how much

Qs responds to a change in P.
Loosely speaking, it measures sellers
price-sensitivity.
Again, use the midpoint method to compute the
percentage changes.

Price Elasticity of Supply
Price elasticity Percentage change in Qs
=
of supply Percentage change in P
P
Example: S
P rises
Price P2
by 8%
elasticity P1
of supply
equals
Q
16% Q1 Q2
= 2.0
8% Q rises
by 16%
The Variety of Supply Curves
The slope of the supply curve is closely related to
price elasticity of supply.
Rule of thumb:
The flatter the curve, the bigger the elasticity.
The steeper the curve, the smaller the elasticity.
Five different classifications.

Perfectly inelastic (one extreme)
= = =0
% change in P 10%
of supply
S curve: P
S
vertical
P2
Sellers
none
P rises Q
Elasticity: by 10% Q1
0
Q changes
by 0%
Inelastic
Price elasticity % change in Q < 10%
= = <1
% change in P 10%
of supply
S curve: P
S
relatively steep
P2
Sellers
relatively low
P rises Q
Elasticity: by 10% Q 1 Q2
<1
Q rises less
than 10%
Unit elastic
= = =1
% change in P 10%
of supply
S curve: P
intermediate slope S
P2
Sellers
intermediate
P rises Q
=1
Q rises
by 10%
Elastic
Price elasticity % change in Q > 10%
= = >1
% change in P 10%
of supply
S curve: P
relatively flat S
P2
Sellers
relatively high
P rises Q
>1
Q rises more
than 10%
Perfectly elastic (the other
extreme)
Price elasticity % change in Q any %
= = = infinity
% change in P 0%
of supply
S curve: P
horizontal
P2 = P1 S
Sellers
price sensitivity:
extreme
P changes Q
infinity
Q changes
by any %
The Determinants of Supply
Elasticity
The more easily sellers can change the quantity
they produce, the greater the price elasticity of
supply.
Example: Supply of beachfront property is
harder to vary and thus less elastic than
supply of new cars.
For many goods, price elasticity of supply
is greater in the long run than in the short run,
because firms can build new factories,
or new firms may be able to enter the market.

ACTIVE LEARNING 3
Elasticity and changes in
equilibrium
The supply of beachfront property is inelastic.
The supply of new cars is elastic.
Suppose population growth causes
demand for both goods to double
(at each price, Qd doubles).
For which product will P change the most?
For which product will Q change the most?
49
ACTIVE LEARNING 3
Answers
Beachfront property
When supply (inelastic supply):
is inelastic, P
an increase in
demand has a D1 D2 S
bigger impact
on price than P2 B
on quantity.
P1 A
Q
Q1 Q2
50
ACTIVE LEARNING 3
Answers
New cars
When supply (elastic supply):
is elastic, P
an increase in
demand has a D1 D2
bigger impact S
on quantity
than on price. B
P2
A
P1
Q
Q1 Q2
51
How the Price Elasticity of Supply
Can Vary
P Supply
Supply often
often
S
elasticity becomes
becomes
15 <1 less
less elastic
elastic
as
as Q
Q rises,
rises,
12 due
due to
to
capacity
capacity
elasticity
>1 limits.
limits.
4
3
Q
100 200
500 525

Other Elasticities
Income elasticity of demand: measures the
response of Qd to a change in consumer income
Income elasticity Percent change in Qd

=
of demand Percent change in income
Recall from Chapter 4: An increase in income

causes an increase in demand for a normal good.
Hence, for normal goods, income elasticity > 0.
For inferior goods, income elasticity < 0.

Other Elasticities
Cross-price elasticity of demand:
measures the response of demand for one good to
changes in the price of another good
Cross-price elast. % change in Qd for good 1

=
of demand % change in price of good 2
For substitutes, cross-price elasticity > 0
(e.g., an increase in price of beef causes an
increase in demand for chicken)
For complements, cross-price elasticity < 0
(e.g., an increase in price of computers causes
decrease in demand for software)
Cross-Price Elasticities in the
News
As Gas Costs Soar, Buyers Flock to Small Cars
-New York Times, 5/2/2008
Gas Prices Drive Students to Online Courses
-Chronicle of Higher Education, 7/8/2008
Gas prices knock bicycle sales, repairs into higher gear
-Associated Press, 5/11/2008

Camel demand soars in India
(as a substitute for gas-guzzling tractors)
-Financial Times, 5/2/2008
High gas prices drive farmer to switch to mules
-Associated Press, 5/21/2008
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Elasticity measures the responsiveness of

Qd or Qs to one of its determinants.
Price elasticity of demand equals percentage
change in Qd divided by percentage change in P.
When its less than one, demand is inelastic.

When greater than one, demand is elastic.
When demand is inelastic, total revenue rises
when price rises. When demand is elastic, total
revenue falls when price rises.
56
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Demand is less elastic in the short run,

for necessities, for broadly defined goods,
or for goods with few close substitutes.
Price elasticity of supply equals percentage
change in Qs divided by percentage change in P.
When its less than one, supply is inelastic.

When greater than one, supply is elastic.
Price elasticity of supply is greater in the long run
than in the short run.
57
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The income elasticity of demand measures how

much quantity demanded responds to changes in
buyers incomes.
The cross-price elasticity of demand measures
how much demand for one good responds to
changes in the price of another good.
58

5 - Elasticity and Its Application

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CHAPTE

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 4

Price elasticity of demand measures how

Loosely speaking, it measures the price-

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 5

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 7

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 8

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 9

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 10

The % change in Q equals

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 11

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 14

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 15

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 17

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 18

The concept is helpful in taking Business

Distribution of burden of taxation

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 25

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 28

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 29

Result: an increase in Q2 Q 1 Quantity

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 39

Price elasticity of supply measures how much

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 40

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 42

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 48

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 52

Income elasticity Percent change in Qd

Recall from Chapter 4: An increase in income

ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION 53

Cross-price elast. % change in Qd for good 1

-Associated Press, 5/11/2008

Elasticity measures the responsiveness of

When its less than one, demand is inelastic.

Demand is less elastic in the short run,

When its less than one, supply is inelastic.

The income elasticity of demand measures how

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