BREAKDOWN MECHANISM

in
Dielectric Materials

Introduction
The major function of power systems is to generate,
transmit and distribute electrical energy over large
geographical areas in an economical manner while
ensuring a high degree of reliability and quality of
supply.
Proper design and safe and reliable operation of
primary insulation system, knowledge of the
physical and chemical phenomenon which
determine the dielectric properties of the insulating
material is very important.
The basic processes which lead to degradation and
failure of such materials and appropriate diagnostic
techniques are of prime importance since any such
failure can cause temporarily/permanent damage to
the system, thereby influencing its reliability and
cost.

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Properties of Dielectrics and
Insulating Materials

Properties of Dielectrics
DC Conductivity
Dielectric Permittivity
Complex Permittivity
Loss angle
Dissipation Factor
Polarization
Dielectric Strength
Insulating Materials
Vacuum - 10-9 to 10-12 bar
Gases - air , N2 , O2 , CO2 , SF6
Liquids - Chlorinated askarals, Silicone Oil,
Synthetic Hydro Carbons
Solids PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), PE
(Polyethylene), XLPE (Cross-linked
polyethylene), EPR (Ethylene propylene
rubber)

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 BREAKDOWN IN GASES
THEORY

If an electric field in an insulating medium is

increased the breakdown of the insulator
occurs. The mechanism of breakdown is
explained.

Ionization Process
The process by which an electron is
removed from an atom, leaving the atom
with a net positive charge (ion).
The energy required to remove an outer
electron from the normal state to a
distance well beyond the influence of the
nucleus of the atom is called the first
ionization energy which is measured in
electron volt (eV) and is numerically equal
to the ionization potential.

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Ionization Process

Collision An electron with high

energy collide with a neutral atom to
ionize.
Photo-ionization The Photon
having the frequency f from radiation can
cause ionization by imparting its energy
hf to a neutral atom. (h Planck
constant)
Ionization on the surface of the
electrode Electron can appear in a gas
from the cathode. Liberation of an
electron from a metal surface requires a
definite amount of energy called the
work function which varies from metal to
metal. Energy can be imparted to metal
by:

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Ionization Process

Bombardment of the surface by particle

which possess sufficient energy.
Irradiation by short-wave radiation
(photo-ionization)
Field emission caused by strong electric
field
Thermo-ionic emission By heating the
cathode.

The mechanism involving one or more

ionization that cause self-sustaining ionization
which will make the insulating medium turn
into conducting medium is known breakdown.

The two mechanisms that explain the

breakdown of gaseous medium under a static
uniform field are:
1. Townsends mechanism
2. Streamer mechanism

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Townsends mechanism
It is based on ionization by (i) Collision and (ii)
Ionization on the surface of the electrode

Experiment setup to study Townsends discharge

Assume that n0 electrons are being emitted

from the cathode per second by the ultraviolet
light.
The Townsends first ionization
coefficient is defined as the number
of ionizing collisions made by an
electron in per unit distance as it
travels in the direction of the applied
field
depends on...
Gas Pressure, p
Electric Field, E 6
Townsends mechanism

When nx electrons at distance x from cathode

move through a distance dx produce additional
dnx due to collision and given by:
dnx = nx (dx) and hence
dnx/nx = dx
Integrating on both sides, we get
ln nx A x
dnx
nx dx At x 0 , nx n0
A - ln n 0

n x n0ex and nd n0ed

nd is the number of electrons reaching the
anode. d
The term e
is called the electron avalanche
The number of new electrons created on the
average by each primary electron leaving the
cathode is:
nd n0 d
e 1
n0
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Townsends mechanism

The average current in the gap

I I 0 e d ( nd n) 0 e d
where I0 is the initial current at the
cathode.
This current cannot be sustained without
the initial current produced by UV light
source.
When the voltage further increases, the
anode current increases sharply and is
limited only by the external resistance.
The gas is said to have broken down.
To explain this Townsend postulated that
a second mechanism in addition to the
primary process must be affecting the
Secondary
current. Ionization
+ve Ion bombardment on cathode: +ve ions
liberated may have sufficient energy to cause
liberation of electrons from the cathode when they
impinge on it, (1)
Photo-ionization - The excited atoms or molecules
in avalanches may emit photons, and this will lead
to the emission of electrons due to photo-
emission, (2)
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Townsends mechanism

Detachment - The metastable particles may

diffuse back causing electron emission, (3).
Townsends secondary ionization coefficient
is defined as the net number of secondary
electrons released from cathode per incident
positive ion;
= 1 + 2 + 3 {secondary electrons}
Let ns = number of secondary electrons
produced at cathode/sec and nt = total number
of electrons leaving the cathode per second
= ns + n 0
Total number electron reaching the anode
n d n t e d ( n 0 n S ) e d
becomes
(1)
The number of electron and hence the number
of ions produced in the avalanche is
nd (n0 + nS)
This +ve ions will produce ns number of
electrons in the cathode by bombardment.
Hence
ns = [nd (n0 + nS)] (2)
Eliminating ns using (1) d
and (2) we get
n0 e
nd
1 (e d 1) 9
Townsends mechanism

Or I 0 e d
Id
1 (e d 1)

Id becomes infinite if the denominator

becomes zero i.e.
(e d 1) 1
As e d 1, e d 1

Thus the breakdown occurs when the

above condition is satisfied.

Breakdown

I I 0 e d

Current-Voltage characteristics for the experiment setup

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 Time Lag for Breakdown

Townsends criterion for breakdown is

satisfied, only if at least one electron is
present in the gap between electrodes.
Time lag - The time difference between
the application of a voltage sufficient
to cause breakdown and the occurrence
of breakdown itself.
Statistical Time Lag - The time ts which
lapses between the application of the
voltage sufficient to cause breakdown
and the appearance of the initiating
electron.
Formative Time Lag - The time tf
required for the ionization processes to
develop fully to cause breakdown of the
gap, after the appearance of the
electron.

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 Time Lag for Breakdown - The
breakdown of the gap will take place
after a time (ts +tf ) from the instant of
application of the breakdown voltage.
This is called the total time lag for
breakdown.
According to Townsends mechanism
the time lags will be of the order of 10-5
seconds.
In practice breakdown was observed to
occur at very short times of the order of
10-8 seconds and decays to zero at a
slower rate.
To explain this phenomena Raether
and Meek and Loeb independently
proposed the streamer theory.

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Streamer Theory
A single electron starting at the cathode
by ionization builds up an avalanche that
crosses the gap.
The electrons in the avalanche move
very fast compared to the +ve ions.
Hence, the positive ions are virtually in
their original positions and the head of
the avalanche will be filled with fast
moving electron
A space charge field is created as shown.
The field behind and ahead of the
avalanche is
increased due
to space charge
and that between
the electron and
the ion is reduced.

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Streamer Theory

This field distortion will increase with

the increase in d. When d attains a
critical value of 18 to 20, the space
change filed is comparable to the
external field Eo.
An intense ionization and excitation of
gas particles in front of the avalanche
head ensues.
Excited atoms return to normal state
releasing photon which in turn generate
secondary electron by photo-ionization.
These electrons generate further
avalanches as shown.

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Streamer Theory
Since photons travel with the velocity of
light, the process leads to a rapid
development of a conduction channel
across the gap and develops as a self-
propagating streamer.
The streamer proceeds across the gap to
form a conducting filament of high-
ionized gas between the electrodes. The
gap, therefore, breaks down.

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 Paschens Law
Townsends Criterion for breakdown in
gases
{ed - 1} = 1
The Townsends criterion for breakdown
of gases does not relate this condition to
the electric field E or the voltage V which
is of practical importance.
Paschens law defines the breakdown
voltage for uniform field gaps as a
function of gap length and gap pressure.
and are functions of electric field E
and gas pressure, p as given below
E E V
f 1 f 2 E
p p p d

Therefore the criterion for breakdown

becomes

(1)

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Paschens Law

Equation (1) is identically true only if for fixed

pd the breakdown voltage V is also fixed.
Hence
V = (Pd)
This means that the breakdown voltage of a
uniform field gap is unique function of the
product of pressure and electrode separation
for a particular gas and electrode material.
This is known as Paschens law.
 Corona Discharges
It is a breakdown in a non-uniform field.
In the non-uniform field the initial
avalanche (discharge) in the gas
appears in the region of highest electric
field intensity, especially at sharp point,
but the streamer formed cannot spread
to the opposite electrode due to very
small electric field intensity beyond this
region.
This partial discharge appearing in the
very strong filed region is known as
corona.
It is always accompanied by hissing
noise and a glow in the dark.
There is distinct difference between the
glow appearance of corona at wires at
different polarities of the applied
voltage. For negative polarity wires the
corona appears as reddish glow and for
positive polarity wires it appears as
bluish-white sheath.
Corona produces power loss both in DC
and AC conductors.
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Effects of Corona
Audible noise
Power losses
Radio interference
Ozone formation
Deterioration of insulation

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