IT 0469 NEURAL NETWORKS

Neuron:
A neuron nerve cell is an electricallyexcitable
cell that processes and transmits information by
electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical
signaling occurs via synapses, specialized
connections with other cells. Neurons connect
to each other to form networks.
 Cell Body
Contains the nucleus
Dendrites
Receptive regions; transmit impulse to
cell body
Short, often highly branched
May be modified to form receptors
Axons
Transmit impulses away from cell body
Axon hillock; trigger zone
Where action potentials first develop

Presynaptic terminals (terminal

boutons)
Contain neurotransmitter substance (NT)
Release of NT stimulates impulse in
next neuron
Bundles of axons form nerves
 Neurons produce electrical signals called action
potentials ( = nerve impulse)
Nerve impulses transfer information from one
part of body to another
e.g., receptor to CNS or CNS to effector
Electrical properties result from
ionic
concentration differences across plasma
membrane
permeability of membrane
Single Neuron Physiology
Resting Potential
Inhibitory & Exitatory Action
Potential
 Nerve cell has an electrical potential, or voltage across its
membrane of a 70 mV; (= to 1/20th that of a flashlight battery (1.5
v)
The potential is generated by different concentrations of Na+, K+, Cl,
and protein anions (A)
But the ionic differences are the consequence of:
Differential permeability of the axon membrane to these ions
Operation of a membrane pump called the sodium-potassium
pump
 Diffusion of Na+ and K+ down their concentration gradients
Na+ diffuses into the cell and K+ diffuses out of the cell
BUT, membrane is 75xs more permeable to K+ than Na+
Thus, more K+ diffuses out than Na+ diffuses in
This increases the number of positive charges on the outside of the
membrane relative to the inside.
BUT, the Na+-K+ pump carries 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in.
This is strange in that MORE K+ exited the cell than Na+ entered!
Pumping more + charges out than in also increases the number of +
changes on the outside of the membrane relative to the inside.
AND presence of anionic proteins (A-) in the cytosol adds to the
negativity of the cytosolic side of the membrane
THEREFORE, the inside of the membrane is measured at a -70
mV (1 mv = one-thousandth of a volt)
 Number of charged
molecules and ions inside
and outside cell nearly equal
Concentration of K+ higher
inside than outside cell, Na+
higher outside than inside
Potential difference:
unequal distribution of
charge exists between the
immediate inside and
immediate outside of the
plasma membrane: -70 to
-90 mV
The resting membrane
potential
 Membrane potential is dynamic
Risesor falls in response to temporary changes in
membrane permeability
Changes in membrane permeability result from the
opening or closing of membrane channels
Types of channels
Passive or leak channels - always open
Gated channels - open or close in response to
specific stimuli; 3 major types
Ligand-gated channels
Voltage-gated channels
Mechanically-gated channels
 Many more of these for K+ and Cl- than for
Na+.
So, at rest, more K+ and Cl- are moving than Na+.
How are they moving?
Protein repels Cl-, so Cl- moves out.
K+ are in higher concentration on inside than out,
they diffuse out.
Always open and responsible for permeability when
membrane is at rest.
Specific for one type of ion although not absolute.
 Gated ion channels. Gated ion
channels open and close because
of some sort of stimulus. When
they open, they change the
permeability of the cell
membrane.
Ligand-gated: open or close in
response to ligand (a chemical)
such as ACh binding to receptor
protein.
Acetylcholine (ACh) binds to
acetylcholine receptor on a Na+
channel. Channel opens, Na+ enters
the cell.
Ligand-gated channels most abun-
dant on dendrites and cell body;
areas where most synaptic commu-
nication occurs
 Graded: of varying intensity; NOT all the same intensity
Changes in membrane potential that cannot spread far from site of stimulation
Can result in depolarization or hyperpolarization
Depolarization
Opening Na+ channels allows more + charges to enter thereby making interior
less negative (-70 mV -60mV); see next slide
RMP shifts toward O mV
Hyperpolarization
Opening of K+ channels allows more + charges to leave thereby making
interior more negative (-70 mV -80 mV); see next slide
RMP shifts away from O mV
Repolarization
Process of restoring membrane potential back to normal (RMP)
Degree of depolarization decreases with distance from stimulation site; called
decremental spread (see next slide)
Graded potentials occur on dendrites and cell bodies of neurons but also on
gland cells, sensory receptors, and muscle cell sarcolemma
Affect only a tiny area (maybe only 1 mm in diameter)
If so, how do neurons trigger release of neurotransmitter far from dendrites/cell body?
 Voltage-gated Na+ channels sensitive to
changes in extracellular Ca2+ concentrations
If extracellular Ca2+ concentration decreases- Na+
gates open and membrane depolarizes.
If extracellular concentration of Ca 2+ increases-
gates close and membrane repolarizes or
becomes hyperpolarized.
Depolarization

Hyperpolarization
Graded
potentials
decrease in
strength as
they spread out
from the point
of origin
 Na+ and K+ channels are closed
Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+
Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated gates
Activation gates closed in the resting state
Inactivation gates open in the resting state
 Some stimulus opens Na+ gates and Na+ influx occurs
K+ gates are closed
Na+ influx causes a reversal of RMP
Interior of membrane now less negative (from -70 mV -55 mV)
Threshold a critical level of depolarization (-55 to -50 mV)
At threshold, depolarization becomes self-generating
I.e., depolarization of one segment leads to depolarization in the next
If threshold is not reached, no action potential develops
 Sodium inactivation gates close
Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to resting
levels
As sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+ gates open
K+ exits the cell and internal negativity of the resting
neuron
is restored
 Potassium gates remain open, causing an excessive efflux
of K+
This efflux causes hyperpolarization of the membrane
(undershoot)
The neuron is insensitive to stimulus and depolarization
during this time
 1 RESTING STATE
RMP = -70 mV
2 DEPOLARIZATION
Increased Na+ influx
MP becomes less negative
If threshold is reached,
depolarization continues
Peak reached at +30 mV
Total amplitude = 100 mV
3 REPOLARIZATION
Decreased Na+ influx
Increased K+ efflux
MP becomes more negative Blue line = membrane potential
4 HYPERPOLARIZATION Yellow line = permeability of
Excess K+ efflux membrane to sodium
Green line = permeability of
membrane to potassium
Illustration shows continuous
propagation of a nerve impulse
on an unmyelinated axon.
Action potentials occur
over the entire surface of the
axon membrane.
 Most Na+ channels concentrated at nodes. No myelin present.

Leakage of ions from one node to another destabilize the second leading to
another action potential in the second node. And so on.
 Repolarization
Restores the resting electrical conditions of the neuron
Does not restore the resting ionic conditions
Ionic redistribution back to resting conditions is
restored by the sodium-potassium pump
 All-or-none principle.
No matter how strong
the stimulus, as long as
it is greater than
threshold, then an action
potential will occur.
The amplitude of the de-
polarization wave will be
the same for all action
potentials generated.
 Sensitivity of area of the membrane
to further stimulation decreases for
a time
Parts
Absolute
Complete insensitivity exists to
another stimulus
From beginning of action potential
until near end of repolarization.
No matter how large the stimulus,
a second action potential cannot
be produced.
Has consequences for function of
muscle
Relative
A stronger-than-threshold stimulus
can initiate another action
potential
 Faster in myelinated than in non-myelinated
In myelinated axons, lipids act as insulation (the
myelin sheath) forcing local currents to jump from
node to node
In myelinated neurons, speed is affected by:
Thickness of myelin sheath
Diameter of axons
Large-diameter conduct more rapidly than small-diameter. Large
diameter axons have greater surface area and more voltage-gated
Na+ channels
 Type A: large-diameter (4-20 m), heavily myelinated.
Conduct at 15-120 m/s (= 300 mph).
Motor neurons supplying skeletal muscles and most sensory
neurons carrying info. about position, balance, delicate touch
Type B: medium-diameter (2-4 m), lightly myelinated.
Conduct at 3-15 m/s.
Sensory neurons carrying info. about temperature, pain, general
touch, pressure sensations
Type C: small-diameter (0.5-2 m), unmyelinated.
Conduct at 2 m/s or less.
Many sensory neurons and most ANS motor neurons to smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, glands
 All action potentials are alike (of the same
amplitude) and are independent of stimulus
intensity.
The amplitude of the action potential is the same
for a weak stimulus as it is for a strong stimulus.
So how does one stimulus feel stronger than
another?
Strongstimuli generate more action potentials
than weaker stimuli.
More action potentials stimulate the release of
more neurotransmitter from the synaptic knob
The CNS determines stimulus intensity by the
frequency of impulse transmission
 Excitatory signal:
Opening of Na+ channels
Depolarizes membrane (-70 mV -60 mV)
Brings membrane closer to threshold
More likely to give rise to an action potential
Inhibitory signal
Opening of K+ channels
Hyperpolarizes the membrane (-70 mV -80 mV)
Takes membrane further from threshold
Less likely to give rise to an action potential
 Excitatory postsynaptic
potential (EPSP)
Depolarization occurs and
response stimulatory
Depolarization might reach
threshold producing an action
potential and cell response
Inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP)
Hyperpolarization and
response inhibitory
Decrease action potentials by
moving membrane potential
farther from threshold
 Individual EPSP has a small effect on
membrane potential
Produce a depolarization of about
0.5 mV
Could never result in an AP

Individual EPSPs can combine

through summation
Integrates the effects of all the
graded potentials
GPs may be EPSPs, IPSPs, or both
Two types of summation
Temporal summation
Spatial summation
Fig. A illustrates spatial summation
Fig. B illustrates temporal summation
Fig. C shows both EPSPs and IPSPs
affecting the membrane
 Organization of neurons in CNS varies in complexity
Convergent pathways: several neurons converge on a single
postsynaptic neuron. E.g., synthesis of data in brain.
Divergent pathways: the spread of information from one neuron
to several neurons. E.g., important information can be transmitted to
many parts of the brain.
 Oscillating circuits:
Arranged in circular
fashion to allow action
potentials to cause a
neuron in a farther
along circuit to
produce an action
potential more than
once. Can be a single
neuron or a group of
neurons that are self
stimulating. Continue
until neurons are
fatigued or until
inhibited by other
neurons. Respiration?
Wake/sleep?
Mc-Pitts Model of Neural Networks
How does neuron learn ?
Structure of Processing Element
Signal processing Techniques-
Frequency Modulation of signals
Radio Transmission-Frequency
domain
Echo suppression in Telephone
networks
Frequency response characteristics of
different Filters
 Several NN have been proposed & investigated in
recent years

Supervised versus unsupervised

Architectures (feedforward vs. recurrent)
Implementation (software vs. hardware)
Operations (biologically inspired vs. psychologically
inspired)

In this chapter, we will focus on modeling problems

with desired input-output data set, so the resulting
networks must have adjustable parameters that
are updated by a supervised learning rule
 Weights
Weights
Weights
Weights
Weights

Wji
Vik

F(wji xj
 1. Apply input to Adaline input
2. Find the square error of current input
Errsq(k) = (d(k) - W x(k))**2
3. Approximate Grad(ErrorSquare) by
differentiating Errsq
approximating average Errsq by Errsq(k)
obtain -2Errsq(k)x(k)
Update W: W(new) = W(old) +
2mErrsq(k)X(k)
Repeat steps 1 to 4.
Structure of ADALINE
Structure of ALC(Adaptive Linear
Combiner)
ALC as a transversal Filter
Use of ADALINE in solving XOR problems
MDALINE Architecture
BPN Architecture
Image to ASCII Conversion using Neural
Network
Image to ASCII Conversion using
Neural Network (Cont.d)
 What is Processing Element. How would you
relate the PEs with real neurons
Define Resting Potential. What is the average
refractory period of a neuron. Is it limited to
a particular value. If Yes mention How?
Differentiate Resting potential and action
potential
State Hebbs Learning Rule. Draw a sample
memory mapping diagram by your own.
How would you factor out the weight vector
from the exception value terms
What is the use of signal processing
techniques in neural networks
 J. A. Freeman and D. M. Skapura, Neural Networks-
Algorithms, Applications and Programming Techniques,
Pearson Education( singapore) Pvt. Ltd., 1991.
(Chapters 1 &2)
psychology.about.com/od/biopsychology/f/neuron01.htm
www.cell.com/neuron
www.neurophys.com
faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chnt1.html