Flow Forces and Drag Coefficient

CHAPTER 5
Flow Past Immersed Bodies
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Content
Boundary layer structure and thickness
over a flat plate
Derivation of Integrals Momentum
equation
Empirical Blasius solution on the
laminar
flat plate boundary layer
Transition; Momentum integral estimates
of the turbulent boundary layer
Boundary layers with pressure gradient
Content
Experimental External Flow; Forces and
moments on a body immersed in flow;
Skin friction drag and pressure drag;
profile drag
Drag and lift coefficient Drag of various
shape objects and Reynolds number;
Drag reduction
Introduction
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Introduction
External flows past objects encompass as
extremely wide variety of fluid mechanics
phenomena.
According to dimensional analysis, the character
of the external flow should involve the
dimensionless parameter such as:
U
Re
U
U Fr
Ma g

U c

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Introduction
If the Reynolds number is small, the viscous
effects are relatively strong and the plate affects
the uniform upstream flow far ahead, above,
below and behind the plate.

Introduction
As the Reynolds number is increased, the region
in which viscous effects are important becomes
smaller in all directions accept downstream.
The streamline are displaced from their original
uniform upstream conditions but the
displacement is not as great as before.

Introduction
If the Reynolds number is large, the flow is
dominated by internal effects and the viscous
effects are negligible everywhere except in a
region very closed to the plate and in relatively
thin wake region behind the plate.

Introduction
Since the fluid viscosity is not zero (Re < ), it
follows that the fluid must stick to the solid
surface (no-slip boundary condition).
There is a thin boundary layer region of
thickness = (x) l next to the plate in
which the fluid velocity changes from the
upstream value of u = U to zero velocity on
the plate.

Introduction
The thickness of this layer increases in the
direction of flow, starting from zero at the
forward or leading edge of the plate.
The streamline of the flow outside of the
boundary layer are nearly parallel to the plate.

Introduction
Low Reynolds number flow (Re = UD/ < 1) past
a circular cylinder is characterized by the
fact
that the presence of the cylinder and the
accompanying viscous effects are felt
throughout a relatively large portion of the flow
field.
For Re = UD/ = 0.1, the viscous effects are
important several diameters in any direction
from the cylinder.

Introduction
As Reynolds number is increased, the region
ahead of the cylinder in which viscous effects
are important becomes smaller, with the viscous
region extending only a short distance ahead of
cylinder.
The viscous effects are convected downstream
and the flow loses its symmetry.

Introduction
The flow now separates from the body at the
separation location as indicate in Figure.
The fluid inertia becomes more important and at
separation location, the flow cannot follows the
curve path around to the rear of the body the
separation bubble behind the cylinder.

Introduction
At still large Reynolds numbers, the area
affected by the viscous forces is force farther
downstream until it involves only a thin ( D)
boundary layer on the front portion of the
cylinder and irregular, unsteady wake region that
extends far downstream of the cylinder.

Description of Boundary layer
The flow of real fluid (except at extremely low
pressure) has two fundamental characteristics.
There is no discontinuity of velocity
At the solid surface, the velocity of the fluid
relative to the surface is zero.
Closed to the surface, a region in which the
velocity increases rapidly from zero approaches
the velocity of the main stream occurs.
This region is known as the boundary layer

Description of Boundary Layer
The boundary layer which is simplest to study is
that formed in the flow along one side of a thin,
smooth, flat plate parallel to the direction of
the oncoming fluid.

Description of Boundary Layer
The fluid originally having velocity U in the
direction of the plate, is retarded in the
neighborhood of the surface and the boundary
layer begins at the leading edge of the plate.

Boundary Layer Thickness on Flat Plate
The purposed of the boundary layer on the plate
is to allow the fluid to change its velocity from
the upstream value U to zero on the plate.
We defined the boundary layer thickness, , as
that distance from the plate at which the fluid
velocity is within some arbitrary value of the
upstream velocity.
y
where
u 0.99U

The Figure show the velocity profiles for flow

past a flat plate;
One if there is no viscosity (uniform profile)
and the other if there are viscosity and
zero slip at the wall (boundary layer
profile).
Due to velocity deficit U u, within the boundary
layer, the flow rate across section b b is less
than that across section a a.
If we displace the plate as section a a by
appropriate amount *, the boundary layer
displacement thickness, the flowrate across
each section will
be identical.

Boundary Layer Thickness on Flat
Plate
This is true
if,
bU U

0
ubdy
where b is the plate width. thus
u
1

0

U
dy

The displacement thickness represents the
amount that the thickness of the body must be
increased so that the fictitious uniform
inviscid flow has the same mass flowrate
properties as the actual viscous flow.

Another boundary layer thickness definition is
the boundary layer momentum thickness, , is
often used when determining the drag on an
object.
Because of the velocity deficit U u, in the
boundary layer, the momentum flux flow rate
across section
b b is less than
that across
section a a.

This deficit in momentum flux for the actual
boundary layer flow on a plate of width b is given
by

u U u dA b 0 uU

dydefinition is the momentum flux in a
whichuby
layer of uniform
speed U and
thickness .

Boundary Layer Thickness on Flat
Plate
That is,
bU uU
2
0
b udy
or
u u
0 1 dy
U U
All three boundary layer thickness definitions, ,

*, and , are of use in boundary layer analyses.

Momentum Integral Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat plate
Consider the uniform flow past a flat plate and
the fixed control volume as shown in Figure.
Assume the pressure is constant throughout the
flow field.

The flow entering the control at the leading edge
of the plate [ section (1)] is uniform, while the
velocity of the flow exiting the control volume
[section (2)] varies from the upstream velocity at
the edge of the boundary layer to zero velocity
on the plate.

Momentum integral Boundary Layer
If we applied the x component of the momentum
equation to the steady flow of fluid within this
control volume we obtain
F x uV ndA
(1
2
uV
) ndA

Let b is width of plate,
D plate
wdA b
plat
wdA
e
Fx
and D is the drag that the plate exerts on the
fluid.

Since the plate is solid and the upper surface of
the control volume is a streamline, there is no
flow through these areas.
Thus,
D 1U U dA u 2

or
dA
2
D U 2bh b
u 2 dy 0

Although the height h is not known, it is known
that for conservation of mass the flowrate
through section (1) must equal that through
section (2), or

uh 0
which can be written as
udy

U bh Uudy
2
0
b

Momentum Integral Boundary
Layer

D U 2bh b0 0 U 2bh b Uudy
u 2
dy
Combining both two equation, we obtained the
drag in term of the deficit of momentum flux
across the outlet of the control volume as
D b0 uU
udy

Momentum integral Boundary Layer
The drag can be written in terms of
thickness, as
momentum
This equation valid for
laminar and turbulent
D bU 2 flows.
The shear stress distribution can be obtained by
differentiating the above equation with respect
to x and obtained
dD d
bU 2
dx dx

The increase in drag per length of the plate,
dD/dx, occurs at the expense of an increase of
the momentum boundary layer thickness, which
represents a decrease in the momentum of the
fluid.
Since dD = wbdx it follows that
dD
dx b w

dD d dD
bU 2
b w
dx dx
By combine
dx equation above the momentum
integral equation for the boundary layer flow on
a flat plate
d
U dx
w 2

The usefulness of this relationship lies in the
ability to obtain approximate boundary layer
easily by using rather crude assumptions.
Example 1
Consider the laminar flow
of an incompressible
fluid
past a flat plate at y = 0.
the boundary layer velocity
profile is approximated as u
= Uy/ for 0 y and u =
U for y > , as shown in
Figure E1. Determine the
shear stress by using the
momentum integral Figure E1
equation.
Approximate velocity profiles can be used in the
momentum integral equation,
Consider a general velocity profile
gY
u for 0Y
U 1
and
u Y
U 1 for 1
where the dimensionless coordinate Y = y/ varies
from 0 to 1 across the boundary layer.

It should certainly satisfy the boundary
conditions u = 0 at y = 0 and u = U at y = d. That
is,
g0 0 and g1 1
For a given g(Y), the drag can be determine as

u U u dy bU Y 1 gY
1
D 0
2
0
b g or dY
C1 gY 1 gY
1
D bU C 1 2
where
0
dY
Also, the wall shear stress can be written as
w
u

U dg
U
C2
y0 Y
y dY 0
where
C2 dg
Y
dY 0

dD D bU 2C 1 w U C 2
dx b
w

Combine the above equation, we obtain
C2
d dx
UC
which can be integrated
1 and give
2 C2 2C2

x C1Re x
UC1 x
Substitute the equation before into wall shear
stress equation
2 C2
w U C 2
x
UC1
we obtained

w C1 C2 U 32
x
2

Flat plate momentum Integral Result for
Various Assumed Laminar Flow Velocity
Profile

Example 2
A laminar boundary layer velocity profile is
approximated by u/U = [2-( y/ )]( y/ ) for y ,
and u = U for y > .
a. Show that this profile satisfies the
appropriate boundary conditions
b. Use the momentum integral
equation to
determine the boundary layer
thickness, =
(x)

Example 3
A laminar boundary layer
velocity profile is
approximated by the two
straight-line segments
as indicated in Figure
E3.
Use the momentum
integral equation to
determine the boundary
layer thickness, =
(x) ,
and wall shear stress, w
=
It convenient to use the dimensionless local
friction coefficient, cf, define below to express
the wall shear stress.

cf
2 U
1 w
2
Therefore
2C1C
c f 2C1
C
2
U 2R
x
x e

For the flat plate of length l and width b, the
net friction drag, Df can be expressed in term
of friction drag coefficient, CDf, as

D b wdx
C Df 0
1
2
U
f 2 1
2
U 2
or
b b
1
c f dx
C Df 0

Using approximate value of cf then
8C1
CD C 2
f R
e

Turbulent Boundary Layer flow
Turbulent layer are usually thicker than laminar
ones
The analysis of flow in a turbulent boundary
layer depends on experimental than does that in
laminar layer.
The momentum equation may again be used to
determine the thickness of the layer, but different
expression for the velocity distribution is
required and the value of the shear stress w at
the boundary cannot be obtained simply by
determining u/ y from the assumed velocity
distribution.
The most simplest velocity distribution in
turbulent flow as suggested by Prandtl is:
n
u y
U

where n is approximately 1/7 for moderate
Reynolds number (Ux/ <107 on a flat plate)
Although the equation satisfactorily describes
the velocity distribution in the most of the
boundary layer, it cannot apply the boundary it
self because u/ y =1/7U-1/7y-6/7= when y =0.

The principle characteristic of the turbulent
boundary layer on the flat plate with zero
pressure gradient are these:
The thickness of the boundary layer increases
approximately as the 4/5 power of the
distance from the leading edge (compared
with the power 1/2 for laminar layer)
The shear stress w at the boundary is
approximately inverse proportional to the fifth
root of the local Reynolds number
(compared with the squared root for laminar
layer)
The principle characteristic of the turbulent
boundary layer on the flat plate with zero
pressure gradient are these:
The total fraction drag is approximately
proportional to the 9/5 power of the velocity of
the main flow and the 4/5 power of the length
(compared with 3/2 and 1/2 powers
respectively for the laminar layer)

Example
Consider turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a
flat plate. The boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to
be u/U = (y/)1/7=Y for Y=y/ 1 and u = U for Y > 1. This is
a reasonable approximation of experimentally observed
profiles, except very near the plate where this formula
gives u/y = at y = 0. Note the difference between the
assumed turbulent profile and the laminar profile. Also
assume that the shear stress agrees with the
experimentally determine formula.
14
w 0.0225U 2
U

Determine the boundary layer thickness , *, and , and
the wall shear stress w, as a function of x. determine
the friction drag coefficient, CDf.
Cont..

Drag and Lift Concept
The x and y component of the fluid force on the
small area element dA are
dFx p dAcos w dAsin
and
dFy p dAsin w dAcos

Drag and Lift Concept
The net x and y component of the force on the
object are
D p cosdA w sindA
dFx
and p sindA w cosdA
L
dFy

Drag
Typically, the result for a given-shaped object is
a drag coefficient, CD where
CD D
1
2 U 2
A
where CD is a function of other dimensionless

parameters such as Reynolds number, Mach
number, Froude number and relative roughness
of the surface.
CD shape,Re, Ma,Fr,

Friction Drag
Friction drag, Df is that part of the drag that is
due directly to the shear stress, w, on the object.
D dFx p cosdA w sindA
The friction drag on a flat plate of width b and

length l oriented parallel to the upstream
flow can be calculated from
Df 12 U 2 Df
bC

Friction Drag
Df U1
2
2
Df
bC

Friction Drag

Example
The square, flat plate shown in figure (a) is cut
into four equal size pieces and arranged as
shown in figure (b). Determine the ratio of the
drag on the original plate (figure a) to the drag
on the plates in the configuration shown in
(b). Assume laminar boundary flow. Explain
your answer physically.
(a) (b)
Pressure Drag
Pressure drag, Dp is that part of the drag that is
due directly to the pressure, p, on an object.
It is often referred to as a form drag because of
its strong dependency on the shape or form of
the object.
D dFx p cosdA w
sindA
Pressure drag can be rewritten in terms of

pressure drag coefficient, CDf.
Pressure Drag
Pressure drag can be rewritten in terms of
pressure drag coefficient, CDf, as
D
p cos2dA C p cosdA
C Dp 1
2
pU 2 1 U A
2
A A
C p p p0
2 U
1
Here Cp is the pressure coefficient, where p0 is

reference pressure.

Example
Two small holes are drilled opposite each other in a
circular cylinder as shown in figure. When the air
flows past the cylinder, air will circulate through the
interior of the cylinder at a rate of Q = K (p1 p2),
where the constant K depends on the geometry of
passage connecting the two holes. It is assume that
the flow around the cylinder is not affected by either
the presence of the two holes or the small flowrate
through the passage. Let Q0 denote the flowrate
when = 0. Determine the Q/Q0 as a function of for
0 /2 if (a) the flow is inviscid and (b) if the
boundary layer on the cylinder is turbulent.

Example (cont.)

Drag Coefficient
Low Reynolds number drag coefficient

Drag Coefficient
The historical trend of streamlining automobiles
to reduce their aerodynamic drag and increase
their miles per gallon

Drag Coefficient 2-D
Typical drag coefficients for regular two-
dimensional objects

Drag Coefficient 2-D (Cont ..)

Drag Coefficient 3-D
Typical drag coefficients for regular three
dimensional objects

Drag Coefficient 3-D (Cont ..)

Drag Coefficient Interest Object
Typical drag coefficients for objects of interest

Drag Coefficient Interest Object (Cont )

Example
As shown in Figure below, the aerodynamic
drag on a truck can be reduced by the use of
appropriate air deflectors. A reduction in drag
coefficient from CD = 0.96 to CD = 0.7
corresponds to a reduction of how many
horsepower needed at a highway speed of 100
km/h?

Lift
The lift can be determine from equation below if
the distribution of pressure and wall shear stress
around the entire body are known.
L dFy p sindA w cosdA
Typically, the lift is given in terms of the lift

coefficient,
CL L
1
2 U 2
A
C L shape, Re, Ma, Fr,

Example
The fishing lure shown in figure below floats on
the surface of the water when three is no
tension, T, in the line. However, it is designed to
sink when reeled in. If it is reeled in too fast (i.e.,
U is too large) it will sink to the bottom and get
snagged. Show that the depth (or equivalently,
) increases as U increases. Start with a free-
body diagram of the lure including the tension in
the line, the weight of the lure, the buoyant force,
the lift (acting down), and the drag on the lure.
Assume the lift and drag coefficient remain
constant.

Example (Cont)

References
i. Massey B. S., Mechanics of Fluids, 2nd Edition,
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1968 &
1970
ii. Munson B. R., Young D. F., Okiishi T. H.,
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition,
John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2006

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CHAPTER 5

Flow Past Immersed Bodies

Adapted from: Azli ABD RAZAK

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The Figure show the velocity profiles for flow

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All three boundary layer thickness definitions, ,

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where CD is a function of other dimensionless

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D dFx p cosdA w sindA

The friction drag on a flat plate of width b and

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Pressure drag can be rewritten in terms of

Here Cp is the pressure coefficient, where p0 is

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