Cognitive

Theories
of
Learning
Rizza Marie L.
Antigua
 Cognitive Theories

Concerned with the things that

happens inside our heads as we learn.
Take the perspective that students
actively process information &
learning takes place through the
efforts of the student as they
organize, store and then find
relationships between information and
4 researchers are:

Ausubel

Bruner

Gagne

Piaget
 Jerome Bruner

Learning theorist
Associated with the
Constructivist view of learning
Originated Discovery method of
learning.
1915: Born in NYC
1947 : Ph. D. , Psychology from
Harvard
Rooted mainly in the study of
cognition
Reacted against behaviorist
model of learning
Bruner believes that students
must be activethey must
identify key principles for
themselves rather than
simply accepting teachers
explanations.

This process has been called

DISCOVERY LEARNING.
 1. Constructivism
paradigm of learning
learners create their own
subjective constructs of reality

2. Discovery learning
method of instruction
learning is best achieved through
a process of inquiry
 Other Constructivists include Piaget &
Vygotsky
Builds on the concept of stages of
development (Piaget)
Environment has bigger role in learning
development.
Unlike Piaget however, Bruner argued that
social factors, particularly language, were
important for cognitive growth.
Discovery learning
Teaching method
Inquiry based process
Focuses on learning through experience
Inductive Reasoning using specific examples
to formulate a general principle.

Learner builds on past experience

Students interact with environment
Discovers facts and relationships on own
Students create own construct of knowledge
through narrative
 Advantages of Criticisms of Discovery
Discovery Learning Learning

Active engagement Too much information

Promotes motivation Often requires vast
Promotes ownership of resources unavailable
learning to the classroom
The development of Lack of teacher control
creativity and problem Teacher may fail to
skills recognize
Learning experience misconception
 A distinction is usually made
between pure discovery
Examples of Discovery learning, in which the
Learning students work on their own
to a very great extent, and
Learning with and guided discovery, in which
through narratives the teacher provides some
Case-based learning direction.
Guided-based learning
Discovery Learning
Simulation based Bruners approach, in
learning which students work on
Incidental learning their own to discover
basic principles
3 stages in Bruners theory of
Cognitive Development

Enactive level-used in 1st-18 months

Iconic level-develops from 18 months
Symbolic level-6-7 onwards
Enactive level (Action-
Based)
Sometimes called the concrete stage,
this first stage involves a tangible hands-
on method of learning.
Bruner believed that "learning begins with
an action - touching, feeling, and
manipulating" (Brahier, 2009, p. 52).
In mathematics
education,manipulativesare the
concrete objects with which the actions are
performed.
Common examples of manipulatives used
in this stage in math education are
algebra tiles, paper, coins, etc. -
anything tangible
Iconic level (Image-
Based)
Sometimes called the pictorial
stage, this second stage involves
images or other visuals to
represent the concrete situation
enacted in the first stage.
One way of doing this is to simply
draw images of the objects
on paper or to picture them
in one's head.
Other ways could be through the
use of shapes, diagrams, and graphs.
Symbolic Level (Language-Based)
Sometimes called the abstract stage, the last stage
takes the images from the second stage and represents them
using words and symbols.
The use of words and symbols "allows a student to organize
information in the mind by relating concepts together" (Brahier,
2009, p. 53).
The words and symbols are abstractions, they do not
necessarily have a direct connection to the information.
For example, a number is a symbol used to describe how many
of something there are, but the number in itself has little
meaning without the understanding of it means for there to be
that number of something.
Other examples would be variables such as x or y, or
mathematical symbols such as +, -, /, etc.
Finally, language and words are another way to abstractly
represent the idea. In the context of math, this could be the use
of words such as addition, infinite, the number three, etc.
 Ausubel

Learning theorist
Associated with the
Constructivist view of learning
Originated Discovery method of
learning.
1915: Born in NYC
1947 : Ph. D. , Psychology from
Harvard
Rooted mainly in the study of
cognition
Reacted against behaviorist
model of learning
 Meaningful
Learners Cognitive
Reception of
Structure
Information
According to David Ausubel, Learners Cognitive
knowledge is hierarchically Structure is the most
organized, and new important factor
information can be influencing learning. It
attached/anchored to what is pertains to the learners
already known. Once a present knowledge
learner successfully attached including facts,
this new information to their concepts, propositions,
existing knowledge, this is theories and raw
where Meaningful Reception perceptual data that the
learner has available at
 Use of Advance
Subsumption
Graphic Organizer
Since the learners Whenever the learners
cognitive structure is the cognitive structure is
most important factor successfully
influencing the learning, strengthened,
this should be acquisition and retention
strengthened. Ausubel of new information is
proposed the use of facilitated. This process
advance organizers to is called subsumption,
allow students to already in which new material is
have a birds eye view or related to relevant ideas
4 Processes for Meaningful
Learning

Derivative Subsumption

Correlative Subsumption

Superordinate Subsumption

Combinatorial SubsumpTion
Derivative Subsumption
This describes the situation in which
the new information you learn is an
example of a concept you already
learned.
EXAMPLE: Your concept of bird is that,
it has feathers, beak, and lay eggs.
Now youve seen a blue jay, new
kind of bird that conforms to your
concept of bird. Your new
knowledge about blue jay is
 Correlative Subsumption
This describes the accommodation of new
information by changing or expanding the concept.

EXAMPLE: Youve seen a new kind of bird, which is the

ostrich. The ostrich cant fly, has big body and long
strong legs. To accommodate this new information,
you need to include the concept of an ostrich to
your previous concept of bird. You expand the
concept by including the possibility of bird being big
and having long strong legs.
 Superordinate Learning

Superordinate learning is when you knew a lot of

examples of the concept, but did not know the
concept itself until it was taught to you.

EXAMPLE: You knew about banana, mango,

dalandan, guava etc., but you did not know, until
you were taught, that these were all examples of
fruits.
 Combinatorial Learning
It describes a process by which the new idea is
derived from another idea that is neither higher or
lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level ( in a
different, but related, branch).
EXAMPLE: To teach someone about how plants
breathe you might relate it to their previously
acquired knowledge of human respiratory where
man inhales oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide.
This is because they are related to each other as
they are both labeled as process of breathing.
Advance Organizers
The advance organizer is a major
instructional tool proposed by
Ausubel.
Two Benefits of Advance Organizers:
You will find it easier to connect new
information with what you already
know about the topic.
You can readily see how the concepts
in a certain topic are related to each
Advance Organizers
Expository describes the new content.
Narrative presents the new information in
form of a story to students.
Skimming is done by looking over the new
material to gain a basic overview.
Graphic organizer visual to set up or
outline the new information. This may
include pictographs, descriptive patterns,
concept patterns, concept maps.
 Robert Gagne

American psychologist

Dealt particularly with problems in

determining just what skills and

knowledge are required for someone to

be an effective performer at a given

job.
 9 Events of Instruction
#1 Gain attention (the hook)
#2 Orient the learner (prep and objectives)
#3 Stimulate recall of prior knowledge
#4 Present content material
#5 Provide learner guidance
#6 Elicit performance practice
#7 Provide informative feedback
#8 Assess if lesson objectives have been learned
#9 Enhance retention and transfer
 #1

Provide a hook that quickly draws the learner into the

lesson

Excite learner with shock factor to motivate

Tie event to lesson topic vs an unrelated engagement device

Examples of possible strategies:

Present a new problem/situation/question/discussion (what if )

Use multimedia (short video/audio clip)

Present a quote, something controversial, analogy

Create a demo

Use ice breaker activities

Surprising statistics
 Orient the Learners
Describe the lesson / objectives

Describe, in detail, what you expect the learners to do and how

they are going to be assessed

Objectives must be measurable and observable (verb choice is

critical)

Provide overview of lesson (preassessment may take place

here to determine what they already know)

3 types of learning as per

Bloom:
cognitive (knowledge)
affective (attitudes)
psychomotor (skills)
 #3 Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge

What
New
is
topic
known

Example of possible strategies:

Relate prior knowledge to new topic (text/audio)
Ask learners to discuss a related personal
experience
Brainstorm ideas or give them a situation to
develop possible answers from previous situations
Quiz learners on previous knowledge
Present a scenario
Anticipate elements of upcoming events
Ask learners to identify what they know/dont know
#4 Present Content Material

Provide content material to the learner in a

way that will augment learning

Break material into small chunks

Possible examples:
readings projects multimedia
audio lectures activities simulations
graphics text websites
PowerPoint, labs/demos web 2.0 tools
Prezi, etc.
#5 Provide Learner Guidance
Help learner with strategies to learn material

Instructor may provide the following:

Provide sample problems/scenarios
Guided Practice (reading, writing,
discussing)
Mnemonics/ graphic organizers
Highlighting; Compare/Contrast
Mind Maps/Drawing
Common mistakes/pitfalls
Inferences/Analogies/Anecdotes
Question/Answer
Rubrics
Checklists
Guidelines
Study guides
Group (small/whole) discussions
#6 Elicit Performance Practice

Provide opportunity for learner to perform skills in

the objective (may be accomplished in groups and
with instructor coaching)

Possible examples of practice are:

Group collaboration

Written drafts of assignments

Labs

Individual/group projects

Activities
#7 Provide Informative Feedback
Provide detailed, learner constructive criticism and
correction

Include specific ways to improve

Peer/self/ instructor feedback

Use rubrics when possible
Give specific feedback of what is good
and areas needed to improve vs.
generalized statement of Good Job!
#8
Assess if Lesson Objectives have been
Learned
Include summative assessment to determine if objective(s) have
been met by individual learners
(solo performance of skills, without assistance)

Toolbox of
Suggestions:
Authentic Assessments
Written Assignments
Formal Assessments
Presentation
Performance
Creation of particular
product
 #9 Enhance Retention and Recall
Make learning stick (e.g., review with additional
examples)
Provide transition for learners to apply information to
other settings
Suggest next lesson (unit) coming attractions

Inpu
Possible examples:
t/
Outp
u
t Relate objectives to personal experiences
Debrief class/student what has been learned
Summarize content and apply to new situation
Give learner new situation to identify transfer of
knowledge
 5 Major Categories of Learning
Verbal Information- skills account for learning
names, labels and facts.
Intellectual- skills refers to learners use of symbols
to interact in the new environment.
Cognitive strategies- essential metal activities to
formulate plans, devices and techniques though
which a certain problem may be solved.
Motor skills- concerned with the coordination of
muscular movement which includes walking,
running, jumping, writing, dancing, etc.
Attitudes- predispositions toward a person, an
object, event, and other stimuli in the environment.
 Jean Piaget

A swiss psychologist,
suggested that children go
through four (4) separate
stages in a fixed order that
is universal among all
children.
Theory of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor stage (Birth-2 years)
Babies are stuck in the HERE AND NOW world
They know the world only in terms of their own sensory input (what
they see, smell, taste, touch, and hear) and their physical or motor
actions on it (e.G. Sucking, reaching, grasping)

Egocentrism-which refers to the childrens tendency to see

things as they want to be.
Object Permanence-that an object or person not within
sight ceases
to exist for the infant.
Concepts of space and time-as children began to crawl &
walk, they
realize that there is distance bet. The objects they are using
 2. Pre-Operational stage (2-7
years old)
The child begun to use symbols, but is
not yet mentally capable of manipulating
them.

Intuitive Though logic bases only on

experiences
Symbols in
Egocentrism
lack of conservation
 Symbolic play: use one object to
stand for another

Fantasy play: pretend to

be something, or pretend
activities that are impossible

Make-believe play: use toys

as props
 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 Years)

REVERSIBILITY

children in the concrete operational stage

understand that if you reverse the action (pour
the water back into the same size cups), then the
water amount REMAINS THE SAME

ITS LIKE MAGIC but not really.

 3. Formal Operational Stage (11-12 Years)

Key Concepts:
-Schema
both mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are
categories of knowledge that help us interpret
and understand the world.
-Assimilation
refers to the process of taking in new
information into our previously existing schema.
-Accommodation
process of creating new schema by
modifying an existing schema after an
individuals interaction with the
environment.
-Equilibration
process of balancing between
previous knowledge(assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for new
knowledge (accommodation)