Manageme

nt CHAPTER 5

Organizational Individuals in
Behavior
An Integrated
Organizations:
Perspective Perception,
Personality,
Jon L. Pierce & and Cultural
Donald G. Gardner
with Randall B. Dunham Differences
PowerPoint Presentation
Copyright 2002 by South-Western by Charlie Cook

51
Part 2 Individuals as
Organizational Members
Perception, Personality, and
Cultural Differences
Attitudes in Organizations
Motivation in Organizations
Behavior in Organizations

Copyright 2002 by 52
Management Practices and
Organizational Affect Employees

Management
Practices

Employee Perceptions,
Attitudes, Motivation
& Behavior
Organizational
Design

FIGURE II1
II1
Copyright 2002 by 53
Learning Objectives
1. Define perception, describe the perceptual process,
and explain how perception affects organizational
behavior.
2. Explain what a self-fulfilling prophecy is and its
importance to managers.
3. Describe the Johari window and how it is used to
improve employee interactions.
4. Describe attribution theory and how it is used to
circumvent perceptual problems in organizations.
5. Define personality and how knowledge of employees
personalities may be used by managers to promote
organizational effectiveness.

Copyright 2002 by 54
Learning Objectives (contd)
6. Describe the relevance of the following personality
traits to organization behavior: organization-based
self-esteem, locus of control, Machiavellianism, and
the Big Five.
7. Define culture and explain its importance to the
management of organizations.
8. Describe Hofstedes five cultural dimensions.

Copyright 2002 by 55
Chapter Concepts
Perception
The process by which people organize and obtain
meaning from the sensory stimuli they receive from the
environment.
Personality
The collection of psychological characteristics or traits
that determines a persons preferences and individual
style of behavior.
Culture
The way in which a society as a whole perceives the
world and how it should operate.

Copyright 2002 by 56
The Importance of Perception
Perception
The process by which we become aware of, and give
meaning to, events around us.
Perception helps define reality.
Objective realitywhat truly exists in the physical
world to the best abilities of science to measure it.
Perceived realitywhat individuals experience
through one or more of the human senses, and the
meaning they ascribe to those experiences.
Behavioral problems arise when an individuals
perceived reality does not match objective reality.

Copyright 2002 by 57
The Perceptual Process
Sensation Selection Organization Translation
a
b
c
d S
e S e
e l
n e
s a a a c a a

Stimuli interpretation
Stimuli organization
Stimuli acceptance
Physical sensation
o c c c t c c a&c
S g g g
t r i
h h h h h h
i y l l l o
m m m m n
f p p p p p p
u r r r r r
l i f
s s s s s r&s
i l t t t i
t v v v l
e t
u r e
v s r
w s
x
y
z

FIGURE 51
51
Copyright 2002 by 58
The Perceptual Process
1. Sensation
An individuals ability to
detect stimuli in the
immediate environment.
2. Selection
The process a person uses
to eliminate some of the
stimuli that have been
sensed and to retain others
for further processing.
Copyright 2002 by
3. Organization
The process of placing
selected perceptual stimuli
into a framework for
storage.
4. Translation
The stage of the perceptual
process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given
meaning.
59
Physical Characteristics of Stimuli
Contrast Intensity
The difference between one The forcefulness that
stimulus and surrounding enhances the likelihood that
stimuli that makes that a stimulus will be selected
stimulus more likely to be for perceptual processing.
selected for perceptual Change
processing.
The variety that causes a
Novelty stimulus to be selected for
When the stimulus an perceptual processing.
individual senses differs
from stimuli experienced in
the past.

Copyright 2002 by 510

Contrast Effect

M
OLD U LD OR YET FULLY
WANT W O E
TAKIN TOW
WERE G PULL
U N D ER ARD
TIME WO

D
HALF FROM AFTER PUSH

N
THESE UL

U
D

FO
HI G H WOUL LL
D
MUST IS C T MA
FROM B A S
FF E S
E
E WHICH
FOR
NEED AD U SE HELP SE N D
M
B EC A ORDE USUAL
BE E N R OTHER
MANY EVEN TH
D EN BE B AC E
U L F K
EACH OR
WO D
NOTE OULD E
LIST U L D W
ARE
O S P
SH

FIGURE 52
52
Copyright 2002 by 511
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Motive
Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individuals
current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g.,
hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of
the stimulus.
Personality
An individual characteristic that creates an increased
likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the
characteristic will be noticed.

Copyright 2002 by 512

The Perceptual Process (contd)
Organization
The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into
a framework for storage.
Stimuli become associated when they:
Are similar in physical resemblance.
Occur in close physical (space) proximity.
Occur in close time proximity.
Are used for figure-ground differentiation.
Are used together to achieve closurea perception of
the whole or to piece together a message.

Copyright 2002 by 513

Figure-Ground Illustration
Field-ground differentiation
The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that
is classified as figure as
opposed to background.

FIGURE 53
53
Copyright 2002 by 514
 Closure
Closure
The tendency to organize
perceptual stimuli so that,
together, they form a
complete message.

Source: Reprinted with permission from Introduction to psychology:

Explorations and applications by Dennis Coon. Copyright 1977 by
West Publishing Company. All rights reserved. FIGURE 54
54
Copyright 2002 by 515
The Perceptual Process (contd)
Transition
The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given meaning.
Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective
reality) of objective reality :
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Stereotyping
Halo effect
Projection
Selective perception
Expectancy effects

Copyright 2002 by 516

Transition Errors
Primacy effect
The disproportionately high weight given to the first
information obtained about a stimulus.
Recency effect
The disproportionately high weight given to the last
information obtained about a stimulus.
Stereotyping
The generalization (application) of a persons prior
beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during
encounters with members of that class of objects.

Copyright 2002 by 517

Transition Errors (contd)
Halo effect
The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation
of an individual to specific characteristics of the person.
Projection
The process by which people attribute their own
feelings and characteristics
to other people.

Copyright 2002 by 518

Transition Errors (contd)
Selective perception
The selection of things consistent with ones own
personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are
inconsistent with that viewpoint;
A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs
that conflict with new information.
Expectancy effect
The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that
confirm expectations.
Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs
when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to
reflect their expectations in a situation.

Copyright 2002 by 519

 Self Perceptions: The Johari Window
Relationship from As position
Known to A Unknown to A
Known to B
Relationship from Bs position

Bs unshared data
Openly shared data One way to
As blind spots conceptualize
the possible
combinations of
what you know
about yourself
and what others
Unknown to B

Unknowns in the know about

As unshared data you.
relationship
Bs blind spots
Future potential

Source: This model is a modification of the Johari Window, a concept presented

in J. Luft. 1970. Group Processes. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books. FIGURE 55
55
Copyright 2002 by 520
Characteristics Affecting the
Perception of Others

Person Group
Groupmembership
PersonPerceived
Perceived Status
membership
Status
Organization Organizational
Organizationalculture
culture
Organization Competitive conditions
Competitive conditions
Perceiver
Perceiver Attribution
Attributionerrors
errors

Copyright 2002 by 521

Perceiving Others
Characteristics of the person perceived
Implicit personality theorythe tendency to ascribe
personality traits to people because they share certain
characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with
others.
Characteristics of the organization
An individuals association with an organization affects
the perception of that individual.
Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how
other individuals are perceived within the organization.

Copyright 2002 by 522

Perceiving Others (contd)
Characteristics of the perceiver
Attribution theoryexplains how people assign
responsibility and the cognitive processes by which
they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the
behavior of others.
Locus of causalitythe attribution of the observed
behavior of others to internal or external causes.
Fundamental errorthe tendency to overestimate the
effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects
of external causes when we judge other peoples
actions.

Copyright 2002 by 523

Reducing Perceptual Errors
Self-understanding
The acknowledgement that you and people who interact
with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.
Conscious information processing
Carefully considering the facts during the perceptual
process and consciously questioning
the accuracy of what you perceive.
Reality testing
The comparison of developed
perceptions about a stimulus object
to another (objective) measure of the object.

Copyright 2002 by 524

Personality
Personality (individual differences)
The characteristics or traits that describe how people
are likely to behave in a given situation.
Determines how a person will react to a managerial
practice.
Pitfalls in assessing personality
Making hasty judgments about personalities.
Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm
judgments.

Copyright 2002 by 525

Determinants of Personality
Nature (heredity)
The assumption that part of personality is biologically-
based and predetermined.
Nurture (environment)
The assumption that
personality is shaped
primarily by life
experiences,
especially those
of early childhood.

Copyright 2002 by 526

Dimensions of Personality
Self-esteem (self-concept)
How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their
abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.

Low
Low Self
SelfEsteem
Esteem High
High

Incapable
Incapable Capable
Capable
Incompetent
Incompetent Competent
Competent
Insignificant
Insignificant Significant
Significant
Unworthy
Unworthy Worthy
Worthy

Copyright 2002 by 527

Self-Esteem Dimensions
Global self-esteem

Role-specific
self-esteem

Job-based
self-esteem

Organization-based
self-esteem (OBSE)

Copyright 2002 by 528

Other Dimensions of Personality
Locus of control
The degree to which people believe their actions
determine what happens to them in life.
Internal locus of controloccurs when people believe
that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the
determinants of their destiny.
External locus of control
occurs when people believe that
external factors such as luck,
other people, or organizations
are the determinants of
their destiny.

Copyright 2002 by 529

 Measuring Locus of Control
I more strongly believe that

Internal Control External Control

Promotions are earned through Making a lot of money is largely a

hard work and persistence. matter of getting the right breaks.
In my experience I have noticed Many times the reactions of
that there is usually a direct teachers seem haphazard to me.
connection between how hard I
study and the grades I get.
The number of divorces indicates Marriage is a legal gamble.
that more and more people are not
trying to make their marriages
work.
When I am right I can convince It is silly to think that one can really
others. change another persons basic
attitudes.

Source: Derived from Rotters I-E test. J. B. Rotter. 1971. External

control and internal control. Psychology Today 5(1):3742, 5859. TABLE 51
51
Copyright 2002 by 530
Other Dimensions of Personality
(contd)
Machiavellianism
Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who
advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional
behavioral approach by individuals to organizational
participation in meeting their personal objectives.
The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner
that will meet ones own needs.
The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as
a means to further ones own ends, regardless of its
impact on others.

Copyright 2002 by 531

Other Dimensions of Personality
(contd)
The Big Five personality theory
The view that all personality traits can be distilled into
five big ones:
Extroversionoutgoing/withdrawn
Adjustmentflexible/rigid
Agreeablenesscooperative/uncooperative
Conscientiousnessthorough/sloppy
Inquisitivenesscurious/disinterested

Copyright 2002 by 532

Cultural Differences Among Culture
Organizational Members Knowledge
Beliefs
Laws
Morals
Culture defined Art
Assumptions
Customs
How a society perceives the world Habits

and how it should operate based

on the beliefs, values, attitudes,
Institutions
and expectations for behavior that Parenting
the society believes to be good, Education
Religious activities
effective, desirable, and beneficial. Law enforcement
Entertainment

Future
Generations

Copyright 2002 by 533

Cultural Awareness and Managers
Culture affects:
The success of expatriate employees
in overseas assignments.

The effectiveness of management

practices and leadership styles
in different cultures.

Copyright 2002 by 534

Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)
Individualism-collectivism
The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to
act as individuals, as opposed to a group.
Power distance
The acceptance of large differences
in power between the most and least
powerful in society.
Uncertainty avoidance
The degree to which cultures differ
in the extent to which they tolerate
uncertainty.

Copyright 2002 by 535

Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)
contd
Masculinity-femininity
The degree to which a society displays mostly
traditionally male or traditionally female traits.
Time orientation
The degree to which cultures
possess a short or long
perspective on time.

Copyright 2002 by 536

 Cultural Differences for Ten Countries
High High Long-term
Power Uncertainty Time
Individualism Distance Avoidance Masculinity Orientation
High USA Russia Japan Japan China
Netherlands China France USA Japan
Germany France Russia Germany Hong Kong
France Hong Kong Hong Kong
Indonesia
West Africa

Medium Russia Japan West Africa China Netherlands

Japan China West Africa Germany
Germany Indonesia
Netherlands France

Low China Netherlands Indonesia Russia West Africa

West Africa Germany USA Netherlands Indonesia
Indonesia USA Hong Kong France
Hong Kong USA
Russia

Collectivism Low Low Femininity Short-term

Power Uncertainty Time
Distance Avoidance Orientation

Source: G. Hofstede. 1993. Cultural constraints in management

theories. Academy of Management Executive 7(1):8194. TABLE 53
53
Copyright 2002 by 537