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4 Cells: The Working

Units of Life
Chapter 4 Cells: The Working Units of Life

Key Concepts
4.1 Cells Provide Compartments for Biochemical
Reactions
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells Do Not Have a Nucleus
4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments
4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and
Movement
4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support
and Protection For Cells and Tissues
Chapter 4 Opening Question

What do the characteristics of modern


cells indicate about how the first cells
originated?
Concept 4.1 Cells Provide Compartments for Biochemical
Reactions

Cell theory was the first unifying theory of


biology:
Cells are the fundamental units of life.

All organisms are composed of cells.

All cells come from preexisting cells.


Concept 4.1 Cells Provide Compartments for Biochemical
Reactions

Most cells are tiny, in order to maintain a


good surface area-to-volume ratio.

The volume of a cell determines its metabolic


activity per unit of time.

The surface area of a cell determines the


amount of substances that can enter or
leave the cell.
Figure 4.2 Why Cells Are Small
Figure 4.1 The Scale of Life
Concept 4.1 Cells Provide Compartments for Biochemical
Reactions

As cells grow larger, metabolic activity and


need for resources and rate of waste
production increases faster than surface
area.
Some large cells increase surface area by
folds in the cell membrane.
Concept 4.1 Cells Provide Compartments for Biochemical
Reactions

To see small cells, there are two types of


microscopes:
Light microscopesuse glass lenses and
light
Resolution = 0.2 m
Electron microscopeselectromagnets
focus an electron beam
Resolution = 2 nm
Figure 4.3 Microscopy
Figure 4.4 Centrifugation
Concept 4.1 Cells Provide Compartments for Biochemical
Reactions

The cell membrane:


A selectively permeable barrier that
allows cells to maintain a stable internal
environment (homeostasis)
Important in communication and receiving
signals
Often has proteins for binding and
adhering to adjacent cells
Concept 4.1 Cells Provide Compartments for Biochemical
Reactions

Two types of cells:


Most Prokaryotes have no membrane-
enclosed compartments.
Eukaryotes have membrane-enclosed
compartments called organelles, such as
the nucleus.
Concept 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells Do Not Have a Nucleus

Prokaryotic cells:

Are enclosed by a cell membrane

Have DNA located in the nucleoid region

The rest of the cytoplasm consists of:

Cytosol (water and dissolved material)


and suspended particles

Ribosomessites of protein synthesis


Figure 4.5 A Prokaryotic Cell
Concept 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells Do Not Have a Nucleus

Most prokaryotes have a rigid cell wall outside


the cell membrane.

Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycans.

Some bacteria have an additional outer


membrane that is very permeable.

Other bacteria have a slimy layer of


polysaccharides, called the capsule.
Concept 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells Do Not Have a Nucleus

Some bacteria, including cyanobacteria, have


an internal membrane system that contains
molecules needed for photosynthesis.
Concept 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells Do Not Have a Nucleus

Some prokaryotes swim by means of flagella,


made of the protein flagellin.

A motor protein anchored to the cell


membrane or outer membrane spins each
flagellum and drives the cell.
Figure 4.6 Prokaryotic Flagella (Part 1)
Figure 4.6 Prokaryotic Flagella (Part 2)
Concept 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells Do Not Have a Nucleus

Cytoskeleton: Some rod-shaped bacteria


have a network of helical actin-like protein
structures to help maintain their shape.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Eukaryotic cells have a cell membrane,


cytoplasm, and ribosomes, as well as
membrane-enclosed compartments called
organelles.

Each organelle plays a specific role in the cell.


Figure 4.7 Eukaryotic Cells (Part 1)
Figure 4.7 Eukaryotic Cells (Part 2)
Figure 4.7 Eukaryotic Cells (Part 3)
Figure 4.7 Eukaryotic Cells (Part 4)
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Ribosomes translate the nucleotide


sequence of a messenger RNA molecule
into a polypeptide.
They occur in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells and consist of one large and one small
subunit.
Each subunit consists of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) bound to smaller protein molecules.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Ribosomes are not membrane-bound


organelles.

In eukaryotes, they are free in the cytoplasm,


attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, or
inside mitochondria and chloroplasts.

In prokaryotes, ribosomes float freely in the


cytoplasm.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

The nucleus is usually the largest organelle:


Location of DNA and DNA replication
Site where DNA is transcribed to RNA
Contains the nucleolus, where assembly
of ribosomes from RNA and proteins
begins
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes


that form the nuclear envelope.

Nuclear pores in the envelope control


movement of molecules between nucleus
and cytoplasm.

In the nucleus, DNA combines with proteins to


form chromatin in long, thin threads called
chromosomes.

The outer membrane of the envelope is


continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

The endomembrane system includes the


nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.

Tiny, membrane-surrounded vesicles shuttle


substances between the various
components, as well as to the cell
membrane.
Figure 4.8 The Endomembrane System
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)network of


interconnected membranes in the
cytoplasm, with a large surface area

Two types of ER:


Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has


ribosomes attached to its outer surface.
Newly made proteins enter the RER lumen
where they are chemically modified and
tagged for delivery to specific locations.

The proteins are transported in vesicles that


pinch off from the ER.
All secreted proteins and most membrane
proteins pass through the RER.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Polypeptides are transported into the RER


lumen as they are being synthesized.
In the lumen they are folded into their tertiary
structures.
Many are linked to carbohydrate groups,
becoming glycoproteins.
Many glycoproteins are important in
recognition and interactions between cells.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)


more tubular, no ribosomes
Chemically modifies small molecules such
as drugs and pesticides
Site of glycogen degradation in animal
cells
Site of synthesis of lipids and steroids
Stores calcium ions, which trigger many
cell responses
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Golgi apparatus: flattened sacs (cisternae)


and small membrane-enclosed vesicles.
Receives proteins from the RER and can
further modify them
Concentrates, packages, and sorts
proteins
Adds carbohydrates to proteins
Site of polysaccharide synthesis for plant
cell walls
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Golgi apparatus has three regions:


cis region: receives vesicles containing
proteins from the ER
trans region: vesicles bud off from the Golgi
apparatus and travel to the cell membrane
or to lysosomes
medial region: in between trans and cis
regions
Figure 4.8 The Endomembrane System
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Primary lysosomes originate from the Golgi


apparatus.

They contain hydrolases (digestive enzymes),


and are the site where macromolecules are
hydrolyzed into monomers.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Macromolecules may enter the cell by


phagocytosispart of the cell membrane
encloses the material and a phagosome is
formed.

Phagosomes then fuse with primary


lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes.

Enzymes in the secondary lysosome


hydrolyze the food molecules.
Figure 4.9 Lysosomes Isolate Digestive Enzymes from the Cytoplasm
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Phagocytes are cells specialized to take in


materials and break them down.

Autophagy is the programmed destruction of


cell components. Cells break down their own
materials, and even entire organelles, within
lysosomes.
Lysosomal storage diseases occur when
lysosomes fail to digest cell components.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

In eukaryotes, breakdown of energy-rich


molecules begins in the cytosol.

The partially digested molecules enter the


mitochondria, where chemical energy is
converted to energy-rich ATP.

Cells that require a lot of energy often have


more mitochondria.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Mitochondria have two membranes:


Outer membranevery porous
Inner membraneextensive folds called
cristae increase surface area

The fluid-filled matrix contains enzymes, DNA,


and ribosomes.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Plant and algae cells contain plastids that


can differentiate into organellessome are
used for storage.

Chloroplast: contains chlorophyll; site of


photosynthesis

Photosynthesis converts light energy into


chemical energy (anabolic process).
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Chloroplasts have two membranes, plus


internal membranes called thylakoids.
Granuma stack of thylakoids; light
energy is converted to chemical energy
on these membranes.
Stromaaqueous matrix around grana;
contains ribosomes and DNA;
carbohydrates are synthesized here.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Other plastids:
Chromoplasts make and store red, yellow,
and orange pigments, especially in flowers
and fruits.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Leucoplasts store macromolecules such as


starch.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Other organelles perform specialized


functions.

Peroxisomes collect and break down toxic


by-products of metabolism, such as H2O2,
using specialized enzymes.

Glyoxysomes (only in plants)lipids are


converted to carbohydrates for growth.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Vacuoles (mainly in plants and fungi) have


several functions:
Storage of waste products and toxic
compounds; some may deter herbivores.
Structure for plant cellswater enters the
vacuole by osmosis, creating turgor
pressure.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Reproductionvacuoles in flowers and


fruits contain pigments whose colors
attract pollinators and aid seed dispersal.
Catabolismdigestive enzymes in seed
vacuoles hydrolyze stored food for early
growth.
Concept 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells Have a Nucleus and Other
Membrane-Bound Compartments

Contractile vacuoles in freshwater protists get


rid of excess water entering the cell due to
solute imbalance.

The contractile vacuole enlarges as water


enters, then quickly contracts to force water
out through special pores.
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

The cytoskeleton:
Supports and maintains cell shape
Holds organelles in position
Moves organelles
Involved in cytoplasmic streaming
Interacts with extracellular structures to
anchor cell in place
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

The cytoskeleton has three components with


very different functions:

Microfilaments (small)

Intermediate filaments (medium)

Microtubules (large)
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Microfilaments:
Help a cell or parts of a cell to move

Determine cell shape

Made from actin monomers that attach


to the plus end and detach at the
minus end of the filament
Figure 4.10 The Cytoskeleton (Part 1)
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Dynamic instability: the filaments can shorten


(more detachment) or lengthen (more
assembly)

This allows for quick assembly or breakdown


of the cytoskeleton.

In muscle cells, actin filaments are associated


with the motor protein myosin; their
interactions result in muscle contraction.

Motor protein (molecular motor): any protein


that causes movement within a cell
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Intermediate filaments:
At least 50 different kinds in six molecular
classes
Tough, ropelike protein assemblages;
more permanent than other filaments and
do not show dynamic instability
Anchor cell structures in place
Resist tension, maintain rigidity
Figure 4.10 The Cytoskeleton (Part 2)
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Microtubules:
Thickest cytoskeleton elements.
Form a rigid internal skeleton for some
cells or regions
Act as a framework for motor proteins to
move structures in the cell
Figure 4.10 The Cytoskeleton (Part 3)
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Microtubules are made from dimers of the


protein tubulinchains of dimers surround a
hollow core.

They have (+) and () ends and show dynamic


instability.

Polymerization results in a rigid structure;


depolymerization leads to its collapse.
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Microtubules form an internal skeleton for


moveable cellular appendages:

Ciliashort, usually many present; move


stiffly to propel a cell, or move fluid over a
stationary cell

Flagellalonger, usually one or two present;


push or pull cell through water
Figure 4.11 Cilia
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Cilia and flagella microtubules are arranged in


a 9 + 2 pattern:
Doubletsnine fused pairs of
microtubules form a cylinder
One unfused pair in center

Motion occurs as doublets slide past each


other.
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Dyneina motor protein that can change


shape and drives the sliding of doublets (-)

Nexinprotein that crosslinks doublets and


prevents sliding, so cilia bend

Kinesinmotor protein that binds to vesicles


in the cell and walks them along the
microtubule (+)
Figure 4.12 A Motor Protein Moves Microtubules in Cilia and Flagella
Figure 4.13 A Motor Protein Drives Vesicles along Microtubules
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Cytoskeletal structure may be observed under


the microscope, and function can be
observed in a cell with that structure.

Observations may suggest that a structure has


a function, but correlation does not establish
cause and effect.
Concept 4.4 The Cytoskeleton Provides Strength and Movement

Two methods are used to determine a link


between a structure (A) and its function (B):
Inhibition: use a drug to inhibit A, if B still
occurs, then A does not cause B.
Mutation: if genes for A are missing and B
does not occur, A probably causes B.
Figure 4.14 The Role of Microfilaments in Cell Movement: Showing Cause and Effect in Biology
(Part 1)
Figure 4.14 The Role of Microfilaments in Cell Movement: Showing Cause and Effect in Biology
(Part 2)
Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

Extracellular structures are secreted to the


outside of the cell membrane.

In eukaryotes, these structures have two


components:

A fibrous macromolecule

A gel-like medium in which fibers are


embedded
Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

Plant cell wall: semi-rigid structure outside the


cell membrane
The fibrous component is the
polysaccharide cellulose.
The gel-like matrix contains cross-linked
polysaccharides and proteins.
Figure 4.15 The Plant Cell Wall
Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

The plant cell wall has three major roles:


Provides support for the cell and limits its
volume by remaining rigid
Acts as a barrier to infection
Contributes to form during growth and
development, keeps direction of the plant
Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

Adjacent plant cells are connected by cell


membrane-lined channels called
plasmodesmata.

These channels allow movement of water,


ions, small molecules, hormones, and some
RNA and proteins.
Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

Many animal cells are surrounded by an


extracellular matrix.

The fibrous component is the protein


collagen.

The gel-like matrix consists of proteoglycans.

A third group of proteins links the collagen and


the matrix together.
Figure 4.16 An Extracellular Matrix
Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

Extracellular matrices in animal cells:


Hold cells together in tissues
Contribute to physical properties of
cartilage, skin, bone, and other tissues
Help filter materials (e.g., in kidneys)
Orient cell movement during development
and tissue repair
Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

Proteins such as integrin connect the


extracellular matrix to the cell membrane.

These proteins bind to microfilaments in the


cytoplasm and to collagen fibers in the
extracellular matrix.

For cell movement, the protein changes


shape and detaches from the collagen.
Figure 4.17 Cell Membrane Proteins Interact with the Extracellular Matrix
Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

Cell junctions are specialized structures that protrude


from adjacent cells and glue them together:

Tight junctions (tight bond, prevent


movement between the two cells)

Desmosomes

Gap junctions (have gaps that allow movement)


Concept 4.5 Extracellular Structures Provide Support and
Protection for Cells and Tissues

Tight junctions prevent substances from


moving through spaces between cells.

Desmosomes hold cells together but allow


materials to move in the matrix.

Gap junctions are channels that run between


membrane pores in adjacent cells, allowing
substances to pass between the cells.
Figure 4.18 Junctions Link Animal Cells (Part 1)
Figure 4.18 Junctions Link Animal Cells (Part 2)
Figure 4.18 Junctions Link Animal Cells (Part 3)
Figure 4.18 Junctions Link Animal Cells (Part 4)
Answer to Opening Question

Synthetic cell models, or protocells, can


demonstrate how cell properties may have
originated.

Combinations of molecules can produce a


cell-like structure, with a lipid membrane
and water-filled interior.

As in modern cells, the membrane allows only


certain things to pass, while RNA inside the
cell can replicate itself.
Figure 4.19 A Protocell
Answer to Opening Question

Life probably began with single-celled


organisms resembling modern bacteria.
These cells lack structures that are typically
preserved as fossils, but recent advances in
microscopy have shown 800 million-year-old
fossil cells that resemble the protocells.

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