DIGITAL COMPUTER

Project work
BIT(BINARY DIGIT)
WHATS A BIT
A bit (short forbinary digit) is the
smallest unit ofdatain a
computer. A bit has a single
binaryvalue, either 0 or 1
TRANSISTOR
 A semiconductor is a material such as germanium andsiliconthat
conducts electricity in a "semi-enthusiastic" way. It's somewhere
between a real conductor such as copper and an insulator (like the
plastic wrapped around wires).
Atransistoris a device that
regulates current or voltage flow
and acts as a switch or gate for.
electronic signals.
Transistorsconsist of three layers
of a semiconductor material, each
capable of carrying a current

WHATS A TRANSISTOR
 Transistors are made from silicon, a chemical element found in sand, which
does not normally conduct electricity (it doesn't allow electrons to flow
through it easily). Silicon is a semiconductor, which means it's neither really
a conductor (something like a metalthat lets electricity flow) nor an
insulator (something like plastic that stops electricity flowing). If we treat
silicon with impurities (a process known as doping), we can make it behave
in a different way. If we dope silicon with the chemical elements arsenic,
phosphorus, or antimony, the silicon gains some extra "free" electrons
ones that can carry an electric currentso electrons will flow out of it more
naturally. Because electrons have a negative charge, silicon treated this way
is called n-type (negative type). We can also dope silicon with other
impurities such as boron, gallium, and aluminum. Silicon treated this way
has fewer of those "free" electrons, so the electrons in nearby materials will
tend to flow into it. We call this sort of silicon p-type (positive type).

HOW IS A TRANSISTOR MADE?

Field-Effect Transistor (FET) Junction Transistor or
Unipolar Bipolar
 We can put a few transistor switches together to make
something called a logic gate, which compares several input
currents and gives a different output as a result. Logic gates
let computers make very simple decisions using a
mathematical technique called Boolean algebra.
 A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit.
Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. At any given
moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions
low (0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels. The
logic state of a terminal can, and generally does, change
often, as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the
low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state
is approximately five volts positive (+5 V).
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XNOR.

LOGIC GATES
 TheAND gateis so named because,
if 0 is called "false" and 1 is called
"true," the gate acts in the same way
as the logical "and" operator. The
Input 1 Input 2 Output
following illustration and table show
the circuit symbol and logic
combinations for an AND gate. (In
1
the symbol, the input terminals are
at left and the output terminal is at 1
right.) The output is "true" when both
inputs are "true." Otherwise, the 1 1 1

output is "false."

AND GATE
 TheOR gategets its name from
the fact that it behaves after the
fashion of the logical inclusive
Input 1 Input 2 Output
"or." The output is "true" if either
or both of the inputs are "true." If
both inputs are "false," then the
1 1
output is "false."
1 1

1 1 1

OR GATE
 TheXOR(exclusive-OR)gateacts
in the same way as the logical
"either/or." The output is "true" if
Input 1 Input 2 Output
either, but not both, of the inputs
are "true." The output is "false" if
both inputs are "false" or if both
1 1
inputs are "true." Another way of
looking at this circuit is to observe 1 1
that the output is 1 if the inputs
1 1
are different, but 0 if the inputs
are the same.

XOR(EXCLUSIVE-OR)GATE
 A logicalinverter, sometimes
called aNOT gateto differentiate
Input Output
it from other types of electronic
inverter devices, has only one
input. It reverses the logic state
1

A LOGICALINVERTER OR NOT GATE

 TheNAND gateoperates as an
AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
It acts in the manner of the logical
operation "and" followed by Input 1 Input 2 Output

negation. The output is "false" if 1

both inputs are "true." Otherwise,
1 1
the output is "true."
1 1

1 1

NAND GATE
 TheNOR gateis a combination OR
gate followed by an inverter. Its
output is "true" if both inputs are Input 1 Input 2 Output
"false." Otherwise, the output is 1
"false."
1

1 1

NOR GATE
 TheXNOR (exclusive-NOR) gateis
a combination XOR gate followed
by an inverter. Its output is "true" Input 1 Input 2 Output
if the inputs are the same,
1
and"false" if the inputs are
different. 1

1 1 1

XNOR (EXCLUSIVE-NOR) GATE

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be performed. In theory, there is no
limit to the number of gates that can be arrayed together in a single device. But in practice,
there is a limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given physical space. Arrays of
logic gates are found in digital integrated circuits (ICs). As IC technology advances, the required
physical volume for each individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or
smaller size become capable of performing ever-more-complicated operations at ever-increasing
speeds.