Power System Protection

Dr. Muhammad Kamran

Lecture No.3
 Lecture Contents
Fault and Symmetrical Components
System Earthing
Types of Earthing according to
application
Special Topic (Portable Earthing)
 Symmetrical Components
The method of symmetrical components is used to
simplify fault analysis by converting a three-phase
unbalanced system into two sets of balanced phasors
and a set of single-phase phasors, or symmetrical
components
These sets of phasors are called the positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequence components
These components allow for the simple analysis of
power systems under faulted or other unbalanced
conditions
Once the system is solved in the symmetrical
component domain, the results can be transformed back
to the phase domain.
 Converting Between the Phase and
Symmetrical Component Domains
 where I0, I1, and I2 are the zero-,
positive-, and negative sequence
components, respectively
This equation shows the symmetrical
component transformation in terms
of currents, but the same equations
are valid for voltages as well
 Transformers are simply represented
as their positive- and negative-
sequence impedances in the
positive- and negative sequence
networks, respectively
However, the transformer
representation in the zero-sequence
network can be more complex and is
dependent on the type of
transformer connection
 Once the sequence networks for the
system are defined, the way they are
connected is dependent on the type of
fault
Sequence network connections for
common shunt fault types
For a three-phase fault, the positive-
sequence network is used with the fault
point connected back to the neutral bus,
as shown in Fig.
 For a single-phase-to-ground fault,
the three networks are connected in
series
Any fault impedance is multiplied by
3 and included in this connection
 For a phase-to-phase fault, the
positive- and negative sequence
networks are connected in parallel,
as shown
Circuit for Unbalanced
Sources
Network Reduction fault at
Bus G
Circuit reduction and current
distribution
 Grounding for system
protection
It is well known fact that the phase-to-ground faults
in a system can limit the ground fault current
depending on adding external impedance between
neutral and the earth
This Lecture briefly covers the various methods of
grounding that are adopted in the electrical systems
In the following clauses, the star-connected
transformer is shown which are widely used in power
distribution
The grounding methods are also applicable in case of
generators, whose windings are also invariably star
connected
 The following table highlights the
possible problems that can occur in a
system due to the common faults
and the solutions that can be
achieved by adopting system
grounding;
 Assignment No.1
In this example, the objective is to
determine maximum current through
the breaker B due to a fault at the
location shown in Figure
All three types of unbalanced fault,
as well as the balanced fault are to
be considered
This is the sort of calculation that has
to be done whenever a line is
installed or modified, so that
Assignment No.1
 Problems in System
Problems
(1) Phase faults:
High fault currents
Only limited by inherent impedance of power supply.
(2) Earth faults:
Solid Earthing means high earth fault currents
Only limited by inherent zero sequence impedance of power
system.
Consequences:
1. Heavy currents damage equipment extensively danger
of fire hazard.
2. This leads to long outage times lost production, lost
revenue.
3. Heavy currents in earth bonding gives rise to high touch
potentials dangerous to human life.
4. Large fault currents are more hazardous in igniting gases
explosion hazard.
 Solutions
Solutions
Phase segregation:
Eliminates phase-to-phase faults
Resistance Earthing:
Means low earth fault currents can be engineered to
limit to any
chosen value.
Benefits
1. Fault damage now minimal reduces fire hazard.
2. Lower outage times less lost production, less lost
revenue.
3. Touch potentials kept within safe limits protects
human life.
4. Low fault currents reduce possibility of igniting gases
minimizes explosion hazard.
5. No magnetic or thermal stresses imposed on plant
during fault.
6. Transient overvoltages limited prevents stressing of
 Earthing Devices
Solid Earthing:
In this case, the neutral of a power
transformer is earthed solidly with a
copper conductor as shown in Figure;
Solid Earthing
 Advantages
Neutral held effectively at earth potential.
Phase-to-ground faults of same magnitude
as phase-to-phase faults; so no need for
special sensitive relays
Cost of current limiting device is
eliminated.
Grading insulation towards neutral point N
reduces size and cost of transformers
 Disadvantages
As most system faults are phase-to-
ground, severe shocks are more
considerable than with resistance
earthing
Third harmonics tend to circulate
between neutrals
 Resistance Earthing
A resistor is connected between the
transformer neutral and earth, see
Figure in subsequent slide;
Mainly used below 33 kV.
Value is such as to limit an earth fault
current to between 1 and 2 times full load
rating of the transformer
Alternatively, to twice the normal rating
of the largest feeder, whichever is greater
Resistive Earthing
 Advantages
Limits electrical and mechanical stress
on system when an earth fault occurs,
but at the same time, current is
sufficient to operate normal protection
equipment
Disadvantages
Full line-to-line insulation required
between phase and earth
 Reactance Earthing
A reactor is connected between the
transformer neutral and earth (see
Figure )
Values of reactance are approximately
the same as used for resistance
earthing.
To achieve the same value as the
resistor, the design of the reactor is
smaller and thus cheaper
 Arc Suppression (Petersen
coil)
A tunable reactor is connected in the transformer neutral to
earth (see Figure )
Value of reactance is chosen such that reactance current
neutralizes capacitance current
The current at the fault point is therefore theoretically nil and
unable to maintain the arc, hence its name.
Virtually fully insulated system, hence current available to
operate protective equipment is so small as to be negligible
To offset this, the faulty section can be left in service
indefinitely without damage to the system as most faults are
earth faults of a transient nature, the initial arc at the fault
point is extinguished and does not restrike
Sensitive watt-metrical relays are used to detect permanent
earth faults
 An earthing reactor connected between the neutral of a
system and earth and having a specially selected,
relatively high value of reactance in such that the reactive
current to earth under fault conditions balances the
capacitance current to earth flowing from lines so that the
earth current at the fault is limited to practically zero
If the ground fault is in air, such as an insulator flash-
over, it may be self extinguishing
This method of grounding is used primarily on 110 kV
systems, consisting largely of overhead transmission or
distribution lines
Since systems of such construction are rarely used in
industrial or commercial power systems.
 Earthing via Reactance
The neutral is connected to earth through reactor
The ground fault that may flow is a function of the neutral
reactance, the level of the fault current is often used as a
criteria for describing the degree of grounding
In this method the ground fault current should be at least 60%
of the three phase fault current to prevent serious transient
over voltages
This is considerably higher than the level of fault current
desirable in the system using resistor, and therefore reactance
grounding is usually not considered as an alternative to the
system using resistor
This system is used when the system neutral transformer is
not available ( DELTA connected system ) in such case the
reactor is used as transformer grounding to obtain the neutral
 Comparison between solid and resistive earthing
Subject
(a) Rated voltage of system
components, particularly
power cables and metal
oxide surge arresters
(b) Earth fault current
magnitude
(c) Degree of damage,
because of an earth fault
(d) Step and touch
potentials during earth fault
(e) Inductive interference on
and possible damage, to
control and other lower-
voltage circuits
(f) Relaying of fault
conditions
(g) Cost
Effective/solid
Earthing
Need not exceed 0.8Um
Approximately equal to
three-phase fault current
(typically 210 kA)
High degree of damage at
fault point and possible
damage to feeder
equipment
High step and touch
potentials
High probability
Satisfactory
Lower initial cost but higher
long-term equipment repair
cost
Resistive Earthing
Must be at least 1.0Um for
100 s
Reduced earth fault current
magnitude (typically
300900 A)
Lesser degree of damage at
fault point and usually no
damage to feeder
equipment
Reduced step and touch
potentials
Lower probability
Satisfactory
High initial cost but low
long-term equipment repair
cost
 Given figure gives the touch potential with solid
earthing
Next Figure shows the touch potentials with
resistance R introduced in the neutral
Here the ground fault current is limited by the
resistance R, so only reduced current flows to
the earth
However, it is a normal practice to adopt solid
earthing method at low voltages (up to say 600
V) and resistance grounding is adopted for
higher voltages (upto 33 kV)
 The other methods of earthing
(reactor, transformer, etc) are
generally adopted in the cases of
voltages beyond 33 kv
Cost invariably determines the
earthing method
 The main reason for adopting solid earthing is
because, the resistance earthing cannot be
used for single-phase loads, whereas most of
the LV distribution mainly households, etc.
comprise of single-phase loads
Nevertheless, resistance grounding is
considered at low voltages in industrial
environments, where three-phase loads are
connected and the process conditions do not
accept frequent shutdowns due to ground
faults
 Though it is true that the power
interruptions can be kept low with
the use of resistive earthing method,
human protection demands that the
power to be isolated in case of
ground faults
That is one more reason for using
solid earthing in utility distribution
transformers
 Effect of Electric Shock
There are four major factors, which
determine the seriousness of an
electric shock:
1. Path taken by the electric current
through the body
2. Amount of current
3. Time the current is flowing
4. The bodys electrical resistance
 The most dangerous and most
common path is through the heart
(see Figure )
Persons are not normally
electrocuted between phases or
phase-to-neutral, almost all
accidents are phase-to-earth
 Sensitive Earth protection
Earthing does not ensure that humans will be
protected when coming in contact with a live
conductor
Though there may be relays, which are set to
sense the earth leakages, invariably their settings
are high
Hence earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB) or
residual current circuit breakers (RCCB) are
adopted where possibility of human interaction to
a live conductor is high
These breakers work on the core balance current
principle
 Figure in next slide illustrates the
operation of the core balance leakage
device
When the system conditions are
normal, the phase current and neutral
current will be equal and in phase
Hence the CT will not detect any
current under normal conditions since
IL + IN = 0 (vector sum).
 The ELCB comprising of core balance CT is
mounted at the source end
When a human comes in contact on any part of
the line, a part of the current will start flowing
through the body
It will result in unbalance of the currents
entering and returning to the CBCT of the ELCB
If the fault current IF, flows through the human
body, IN is reduced by this amount. Relay is
operated by this unbalance quantity, and
immediately trips the ELCB
 It is normal that the ELCBs are
moulded breakers similar to the
miniature circuit breakers including,
CBCT mounted inside
It is also common that the CBCT can
be mounted outside and the
unbalanced current can be taken to
trip a separate relay namely earth
leakage relay.
 The above example considered a single-phase
system
However, the principle is the same for three-phase
systems with neutral, where also the vector sum of
the three-phase currents (IR + IY + IB) and the
returning neutral current IN will be zero
All the phase and neutral conductors are taken in
through the CBCT so that the CBCT does not sense
any current under normal conditions
In the event of any leakage in any phase, the CBCT
immediately detects unbalance and causes the
breaker to trip
 The ELCBs are available with
sensitivity of 30 mA, 100 mA and 300
mA
For human protection, 30 mA ELCBs
is recommended, since currents
flowing above 30 mA in a human can
cause serious damage including
death