Evaluating and Interpreting Information

Chapter 8
Evaluating and
Interpreting Information
Technical Communication
Fourteenth Edition
John M. Lannon
Laura J. Gurak
Copyright 2017, 2014, 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
Evaluate your sources based on currency,

reliability, and other factors
Pay special attention to evaluating online
sources
Assess the quality of your evidence
Interpret your findings accurately and without
bias
Learning Objectives (continued)
Recognize common errors in reasoning and
statistical analysis
Understand that even careful research can be
limited and imperfect
Evaluating and Interpreting
Not all information is equal. Not all interpretations
are equal either:
Evaluate the Sources
Start the evaluating and interpreting process by
evaluating your sources:
Determine the currency of the source.
Assess the reputation of the source.
Consider the possible motives of those who have
funded a study.
Cross-check the source against other, similar
sources.
Evaluate Online Information
For online sources, special scrutiny is
needed. The Internet is home to many peer-
reviewed, edited publications.
But online, where anyone can become a
publisher, you will also find information that
is not subject to the scrutiny of an editorial
board.
So, when evaluating online information, be
sure to find out more about the organization
behind the Web site or other source.
Evaluate the Evidence
Then evaluate the evidence. Evidence is any
finding used to support or refute a particular
claim:
Determine the sufficiency of the evidence.
Differentiate hard from soft evidence. Hard
evidence is facts, expert opinion, and statistics;
soft evidence is uninformed opinion and
speculation.
Decide whether the presentation of evidence is
balanced and reasonable.
Consider how the facts are being framed.
Interpret Your Findings
Interpreting means trying to reach the truth of
the matter: an overall judgment about what the
findings mean and what conclusion or action
they suggest. Unfortunately, research does
not always yield answers that are clear or
conclusive. Instead of settling for the most
convenient answer, we must pursue the most
reasonable answer:
Identify your level of certainty. Is it a conclusive
answer (irrefutable), the probable answer
(likely), or an inconclusive answer (uncertain)?
Interpret Your Findings
(continued)
Examine the underlying assumptions.
Assumptions are ideas we often accept without
proof. Does the information you located make
assumptions?
Be alert to personal bias. Does the information
youve found seem biased?
Consider other possible interpretations. Is there
another way you can look at what youve found?
Avoid Distorted or
Unethical Reasoning
Next apply reason to the information youve
found by seeing if it contains errors in reasoning,
such as the following logical errors:
Faulty generalization. Generalizing on the basis of
limited evidence. Ask yourself: How much can we

generalize from these findings?
Faulty causal reasoning. Confusing or distorting
why one thing caused or will cause another thing to
happen. Ask yourself: Did X possibly, probably, or
definitely cause Y?
Avoid Distorted or Unethical
Reasoning (continued)
Faulty statistical analysis. Interpreting the
numbers in a misleading way. Ask yourself: Are
these numbers really accurate? Avoid:
* Sanitized statistics (numbers that have been
manipulated to obscure the facts)
* Meaningless statistics (quantifying things
that really cant be quantified)
* Undefined averages (averages that are
mathematically skewed)
* Distorted percentage figures (percentages
that arent mathematically valid or ignore the
margin or error)
Avoid Distorted or Unethical
Reasoning (continued)
* Bogus rankings (items compared on the basis
of ill-defined criteria)
* Confusion of correlation and causation
(misinterpreting coincidence as truth)
* Biased meta-analysis (using only findings from
other studies that support your own bias)
* Fallible computer model (trusting a computer
with biased assumptions programmed in)
* Misleading terminology (using statistical
terms that hide meaning)
Acknowledge the
Limits of Research
Finally, understand that even careful research
can be limited and imperfect.
Not all research is valid (correct) and reliable
(repeatable). A valid survey can lead to invalid
results when respondents misunderstand
questions, answer questions dishonestly, or
respond how the think they ought to. A
reliable survey can become unreliable when
the same respondents answer the same
questions differently the second time.
Acknowledge the
Limits of Research (continued)
Research studies can be flawed.
Epidemiological studies (the study of
populations), laboratory studies (studies
conducted under laboratory conditions), and
human exposure studies (clinical trials) can
go wrong in a variety of ways.
Research can sometimes be deceptively
reported. Sometimes researchers avoid
reporting results that are awkward,
embarrassing, or unpopular.
Guidelines for Evaluating and
Evaluate the sources
Check the posting or publication date.
Assess the reputation of each source.
Assess the quality of your source material.
Dont let looks deceive you.
Identify the studys sponsor.
Look for corroborating sources.
Evaluate the evidence
Decide whether the evidence is sufficient.
Look for a fair and balanced presentation.
Try to verify the evidence.
(continued)
Interpret your findings
Dont expect certainty.
Examine the underlying assumptions.
Identify your personal biases.
Consider alternative interpretations.
Check for weak spots
Scrutinize all generalizations.
Treat causal claims skeptically.
Look for statistical fallacies.
(continued)
Consider the limits of computer analysis.
Look for misleading terminology.
Interpret the reality behind the numbers.
Consider the studys possible limitations.
Look for the whole story.
Review Questions
1. What is the difference between evaluation
and interpretation of information?
2. What are the four ways to evaluate a source?
3. What are four ways to evaluate evidence?
4. What are hard evidence and soft evidence?
5. What are the four ways of interpreting your
findings?
6. What are the three levels of certainty?
7. What is a faulty generalization?
Review Questions (continued)
8. What is faulty causal reasoning?
9. What are five types of faulty statistical
reasoning?
10. In what three ways can research findings be
limited?

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Chapter 8

Evaluate your sources based on currency,

limited evidence. Ask yourself: How much can we

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