2-3 - Stages For Highway, Bridge Nuraini

CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY
CEM 571
Powerpoint Templates
Page 1
Stages for construction
1. Building
2. Retaining walls, Drainage
3. Road, Highway, Bridges
4. Airports, Offshore/Marine structure
Page 2
ROADS,
HIGHWAYS &
BRIDGES
Page 3
At the end of lectures, student will be able to :
- Identify the different types of road and
highways and their respective functions.
(CO1:PO2)
-Identify the functions of various bridges.
(CO1:PO2)
Page 4
HIGHWAY Development
Process and Functional
Classification
Page 5
Overview of the
Highway Development Process
Page 6
Highway Development Process
Highway design is only one element of the
overall development process
Five stages of highway development process:
planning, project development, final design,
right-of-way, and construction
Different activities with overlap in terms of
coordination
Flexibility available for highway design during
the detailed design phase is limited by
decisions on early stages
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Page 8
Planning
Initial definition of the need for any highway
or bridge improvement project takes place in
this phase
Problems identified fall into these categories:
Existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement
Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available
capacity, and access to transportation and mobility need to be
increased (capacity).
The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and
accident problems that can only be resolved through physical,
geometric changes (safety).
Developmental pressures along the route make a
reexamination of the number, location, and physical design of
access points necessary (access).
Page 9
Planning (contd.)
Once problem is identified, it is important that
all parties agree that the problem exists and
that it should be fixed
Consider potential impacts of project:
How will the proposed transportation improvement affect
the general physical character of the area surrounding
the project?
Does the area to be affected have unique historic or
scenic characteristics?
What are the safety, capacity, and cost concerns of the
community?
Answers on this phase
Page 10
Factors in Planning
Page 11
Project Development
Environmental analysis intensifies
Includes a description of the location and
major design features of the recommended
project
Try to avoid, minimize and mitigate
environmental impacts
Basic steps:
Refinement of purpose and need
Development of a range of alternatives (including the
"no-build" and traffic management system)
Evaluation of alternatives and their impact on the natural
and built environments
Development of appropriate mitigation
Page 12
Project Development (contd.)
Assess area
Consider context and physical location
Data collection effort
Identify constraints
Consider factors and select preferred alternative

Page 13
Final Design
After a preferred alternative is selected and the
project description agreed on upon as stated in
the environmental document, the final design
occurs
The product of this phase is a complete set of
plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&Es)
of required quantities of materials ready for the
solicitation of construction bids and
subsequent construction
Depending on the scale and complexity, this
phase may take from a few months to several
years
Page 14
Final Design (contd.)
Need to employ imagination, ingenuity and
flexibility
Be aware of commitment of previous phases
Ability of making minor changes to original
concept
Design considerations
Developing a concept
Considering scale
Detailing the design
Page 15
Right-of-Way, Construction
and Maintenance
During the right-of-way acquisition and

construction phases, minor adjustments in the
design may be necessary
Construction may be simple or complex and
may require a few months to several years
Maintenance is very important to keep the
character of the road
Page 16
Functional
Classification
Page 17
Functional Classification
Is the process by which streets and
highways are grouped into classes, or
systems, according to the character of traffic
service that they are intended to provide
Streets and highways classification
Orderly grouping roads based on service
Assist in geometric design features
In accordance with operational needs
Establishes hierarchy of roads
Efficient and safe if road serve their purpose
Page 18
Functional Classification (contd.)
Assessment of operating conditions

Comparison between actual and intended
purpose
Chance to sort data based on type of road
Collision data not yet available
Three functional classifications:
arterials
Collector
local roads
Page 19
CATEGORIES OF ROAD
(RURAL AREAS)
1. Expressway
2. Highways
3. Primary roads
4. Secondary roads
5. Minor roads
Page 20
CATEGORIES OF ROAD
(URBAN AREAS)
1. Expressways
2. Arterials
3. Collectors
4. Local streets
Page 21
ENGINEERING STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATIONS
AREA PROJECTED ALL TRAFFIC VOLUME
ADT
10,000 3,000
> 1,000
n/a TO TO <150
10,000 TO 150
3,000 1,000
RURAL Expressway R6 - - - - -
Highway R5 - - - - -
Primary Road - R5 R4 - - -
Secondary - - R4 R3 - -
Road - - - - R2 R1
Minor Road
URBAN Expressway U6 - - - - -
Arterial - U5 U4 - - -
Collector - U5 U4 U3 - -
Local Street - - U4 U3 U2 U1
Page 22
1. What is accessibility and mobility?
2. Roads are not the only contributors to
accessibility
3. Planning should be centred on
accessibility improvement
4. Defining usable accessibility criteria
5. Who should do accessibility planning?
6. What are the limits of accessibility
planning?
Page 23
Accessibility
A measure of how easy a place is to get to.
A place is accessible when a person can get to it with what
he or she considers an acceptable outlay of time, effort and
money.
A place is more accessible when it takes less time and effort
(and possibly risk and expense) for an individual to get there.
A place is inaccessible when the outlay to get there is greater

than the benefit the person expects once arrived. It is
generally a value-loaded concept and does not lend itself to
absolute statements. Rather it provides a pragmatic measure
for choosing between alternatives
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Mobility
A measure of the ease with which people can move around.
Places become more accessible when a people are more
mobile.
By putting services beside the people who need them the
need for mobility is lessened.
However, what about the people who have to come to staff
the services and what about getting things to them? Their
accessibility can be reduced.
Also, greater mobility reduces isolation by facilitating
interactions and an increased flow of information. In any
case there are increasing diseconomies of scale due to
fragmentation when services are moved closer to users.
In summary, making services more accessible will always
involve a tradeoff between moving or multiplying services
and making it easier for people to get around.
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ROADWAY FUNCTIONAL CLASSES
Determined by
characteristics:
function
access density
traffic demands
trip length
expected speed
Page 29
Roadway Functional Classes (contd.)
Arterial: highest level of service, high mobility,

low access, long trips, fast speeds
Collector: less highly developed level of
service, lower speed for shorter trips, collects
traffic from local roads and connecting them
with arterials
Local: all roads not defined as arterials or
collectors, provides access to land with littler
or not through traffic, low speed
Page 30
Roads are not the only contributors to
accessibility
A decision to invest in roads is in fact a major decision to invest in
improved accessibility by increasing mobility.
The investment is traditionally made with little knowledge of what the
impact of mobility will be on accessibility (or even whether a road will
contribute to mobility) and whether the same amount invested in other
ways could have a greater impact.
How did this narrow viewpoint become the norm? Because we have
proceeded by analogy with larger road networks. These normally
connect fixed nodes, cities or towns with large numbers of users.
There are fewer alternatives to improving accessibility (we could
propose telephones or a rail service but often dont) so we do not look
further. In any case, bad investments are made here too through taking
too narrow a view. Roads are often built whose use does not justify the
expense.
Page 31
Planning should be centred on
accessibility improvement
In the past, roads have been assumed to be the only way of linking rural
communities to services. Since they are particularly expensive, as is
motorised transport in general, this has often resulted in a waste of money.
Evaluations of road projects have often found that impact on living
standards has been slight to the point that they conclude that increased
accessibility has a minor if any impact on poverty reduction, or at best only
a very indirect one.
However, rather than throwing out the baby with the bathwater, what could
have been concluded is that although the road did not significantly improve
accessibility, other forms of investment could perhaps have done so.
We conclude that planning rural road networks (those that connect
spatially dispersed and poor communities directly with services or higher
level collector roads which lead to them) must be subordinated to
accessibility considerations. In fact, all investments which make places
more accessible, whether by making people more mobile or simply
bringing them closer to users, must be integrated within a single planning
process.
Page 32
Defining usable accessibility criteria
A very wide range of alternative ways of providing accessibility must be

analysed before investing. It also requires a close look at which facilities
must be more accessible and to whom if we are to maximise impact on
poverty.
We also need a close definition of an accessibility scale that can be folded
into an index which would allow ranking strategies. Alternatively, we can
beg the question by relying entirely on consultation with stakeholders. This
does not eliminate the need for indices (which try to make the
consequences of value judgements explicit this one is better than the
other because the number is bigger ) but admits some fuzziness by
allowing more dimensions in the decision space instead of trying to fold
them up into one. Choosing becomes more difficult. The emphasis will be
on providing clear descriptions of one strategy over another so that people
can agree, despite our differences we prefer this one rather than the
other
Page 33
Defining usable accessibility criteria
We all agree that accessibility is necessary if not sufficient for development. At
the extreme, people totally isolated from the social mainstream cannot but be
poor. Also that improving it is costly.
We dont know how accessible services should be nor what is the link with living
standards. We do seem to agree on the fact that, in a context of insufficient
funds and poverty, priority should be given to ensuring that everyone has a
minimal level of accessibility to essential services. Only then can we start to
debate about how accessible services should be and which groups (the very
poor, women) should get special treatment.
There are already enormous disparities in accessibility between urban and rural
areas, a fact well demonstrated by the growth of cities which attract people from
rural areas for just this reason. This in itself, is an adequate justification. The first
step in measuring need must be to devise ways of determining who has not this
minimal access and then to develop ways of providing them with it as cheaply as
possible.
Page 34
Who should do accessibility planning?
Roads departments should be participants in the process, not the

exclusive planning engine. They know about roads (and non-motorable
tracks perhaps) and how to build and maintain them. This is the only
knowledge they bring.
They do not know about transport system characteristics and needs
except in very general terms, since they are almost entirely
concentrated on the particular needs of the motor vehicle. They have
not concerned themselves with non-motor vehicle users and their
needs, nor have they considered the road transport environment which
determines whether or not transport services will materialise if a road is
improved.
Finally, they are not in a position to trade off road improvements
against other ways of making services more accessible. Worse, there
is a conflict of interest, since road departments justify themselves by
building roads, preferably good and expensive ones.
Page 35
Who should do accessibility planning?
Who are the people who know about these things and how can
they participate in the planning process? There is no Ministry of
Accessibility. Many departments have an interest, notably those
who manage the services people want. However, the people most
concerned and most knowledgeable are those who cannot get to
the places they need to go to.
Obviously, they should be the centre of the planning process. The
role of the departments who provide the services or the means of
getting to them should be to clarify the consequences of the
decision they take. In other words, throw light on the trade-offs
between costs and consequences, and also define the financial
envelope and the strings attached to it. Afterwards, they should
ensure that local level measures to improve accessibility will not be
hindered by bad decisions at higher levels or more positively, make
national level changes that support local level initiatives
Page 36
What are the limits of accessibility
planning?
When can accessibility planning be allowed to fold itself up into a

simple question of road planning as it is treated now? This is
important since we must define a space within which the accessibility-
based approach is valid. It is too cumbersome to apply to large areas
since it requires quite heavy data collection (although generalisation
from similar situations could become possible with time). Also since it
is community-centred, it is limited by the area within which the
concept of community holds.
The present situation in rural areas has arisen mainly by default.
Road departments took charge and applied the methods they were
used to, and which, for that matter, donors insisted upon. In cities,
where the problem is similarly multi-dimensional, it is accepted to be
within the domain of urban planning which integrates land use,
accessibility and modal competition into the process. No city would
entrust the task to its roads department!
Page 37
What are the limits of accessibility planning?
We propose a utilitarian criterion. For example, road network planning

can revert to conventional practice when the problem can be defined
without too much loss of reality as simply one of facilitating motor
vehicle movement. In other words, when we are dealing with a road
network where there are enough users to benefit sufficiently from good
roads to allow trading off investment in road quality against their gains.
Roads tend to be very little used by motor vehicles in contexts where
accessibility planning is useful. In fact, many may have become
impassable. When the network is visibly used by an easily countable
number of vehicles, accessibility planning becomes largely a question
of road improvement and can revert to the appropriate department.
However, the impact of their decisions on local accessibility needs
must be screened at the local level and modified if necessary. At the
same time, local level strategies must be modified to take account of
them.
Page 38
Some basic principles
The approach in rural areas must be one of accessibility

planning NOT roads planning;
The people who stand to gain or lose from poor accessibility
should be the motor of the process;
Those who will finance, illuminate by their knowledge the
decision-making process, or generally facilitate
implementation should provide support. These include road
departments (and transport), ministries concerned with rural
infrastructure, donors and consultants.
Planning can be simplified if it be centred on providing
MINIMAL OR BASIC ACCESS.
Accessibility planning can give way to the traditional
approach when levels of traffic are sufficient to allow
tradeoffs between costs of service provision and benefits to
user
Page 39
Summary
Essentially there are three nested and distinct sets or areas to
be looked at:
1. Accessibility planning is the primary set. It covers measuring

need in operational terms, defining a hierarchy of measures
to satisfy it, and defining criteria to choose amongst them. It
also covers the management structures needed, local,
regional, national
1. Transport planning is a sub-set, which covers all measures

which contribute to mobility, including of course motorable
road construction;
1. Finally, road planning (quality, technology choice,

management, maintenance financing etc) is a sub-set, but of
course an important one, of transport planning.
Page 40
ROAD CLASSIFICATION
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ROAD DESIGN
Our scope of road design is no longer confined to just
the traveled way (pavement) or even the right-of
way.
Rather, it now encompasses the right-of-way and all

its access features (driveways, intersecting streets).
Context-sensitive design, now the goal of good road

design, includes all of these roadway features and
also the adjoining land development.
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The transect arranges all the possible settings of a road into a few
distinct categories, ranging from the most rural to the most urban.
With the setting clearly defined, road designers can develop plans
that fit and improve the value of their surrounding.
Cross-section elements are the design details that establish
much of the roads appearance and character. The design of all
cross section elements should vary, according to the setting
(transect point) of the specific segment of road being
designed. The failure to observe the distinction and settings
accounts for much of the one-size fits all inappropriateness
of many recent road designs.
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Building placement, while not a roadway design element,
has a critical impact on the character of the road. The
conventional suburban building placement, with the
buildings deeply set back and with parking adjacent to the
road, permanently relegates the road to a blighted suburban
strip commercial character. Further, this character ensures
high operating speeds (50-60 mph) for vehicles, further
undermining any main street or town center
atmosphere.
The same development, arranged so that buildings front the

road and parking is concealed in the rear (i.e., same amount
of buildings and parking) produces a road with
fundamentally different character and low (20-30 mph)
operating speeds for vehicles. These conditions permit
attractive character, such as main streets or town centers.
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Conventional Development Pattern
Until recently, the pattern for almost all new growth

in many parts of the country.
Land uses are single purpose, and physically
separated from each other with no connecting
roadways. All travel between land uses requires use
of the fronting arterial highway.
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The traditional pattern of development
both the historical pattern of development as well

as the pattern now advocated for smart growth
development.
In this development pattern, land uses are arranged

along a street and block pattern, with different land
uses immediately adjacent to each other.
Most travel between different land uses is made on

the local, highly connected street network.
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The travel pattern on the conventional suburban
pattern of streets focuses all travel onto the existing
arterial highway.
Little or no travel is accomplished on local street
network, since the new developments are not
connected with local streets.
The traffic consequence is congestion and delay on
the arterial highway, even as the surrounding land
is still largely undeveloped.
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In the traditional or smart growth development
pattern, much of the local travel between land uses
is accommodated on local network, and therefore
does not require the use of the existing arterial
road. Around three-quarters of all travel is local in
nature, and could therefore avoid the use of arterial
highways, at least in peak hours. Providing more
local network, to accommodate local trips, is often
the most satisfactory approach to improving travel
conditions for local residents.
Page 61
Functional Classification
in the Design Process
The first step in the design process is to define the
function that the facility is to serve.
The level of service required to fulfill this function provides
the basis for design speed and geometric criteria within
the range of values available to the designer
Functional classification decisions are made before the
design phase, but there is flexibility in the major
controlling factor of design speed
Page 62
Design Classification System
Source: TAC Geometric Design Guide for
Canadian Roads
Classification system (differences in)
Traffic and land service
Design features
Operational needs (adjacent land use)
For all areas in Canada
Rural (R) Urban (U)
Lane
Local (L) Local (L)
Collector (C) Collector (C)
Arterial (A) Arterial (A)
Expressway (E)
Freeway (F) Freeway (F)
Page 63
Design Classification (contd.)
Ten primary divisions
Design subdivisions
Divided (D) or undivided (U)
Design speed (value)
Example (See Table 1.3.2.1, next slide)
RAD (90)
UCU (80)
Comments
Number of classes: 63
Design speed increases from local to freeways
All locals street are undivided
All freeways are divided
Page 64
RURAL DESIGN CLASSIFICATION
SOURCE: TAC GEOMETRIC DESIGN GUIDE FOR CANADIAN
ROADS
Page 65
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN
CLASSIFICATION
Adjacent Land Use:
Urban vs. rural classification
Service Function:
Access to land. Ex: local
Service to traffic. Ex: freeways
both
Traffic Volume:
Freeways: high volume
Collectors and locals: low volume
Flow Characteristics:
Freeways: uninterrupted facility
Locals; interrupted facilityTemplates
Powerpoint
Page 66
Factors considered in Classification
(contd.)
Running Speed:
Generally increase from locals to collectors to arterials
to freeways
Vehicle Type:
Proportion of passenger cars, buses, large trucks
Connections:
Normal for roads to connect to the same classification
or one higher or one lower
See Table 1.3.3.1
For Characteristics of Rural Roads
See Table 1.3.4.1
For Characteristics of Urban Roads
See Table 1.3.4.2
Page 67
Road Connections
Page 68
Factors governing ROAD/
HIGHWAY alignment
Obligatory points
The location should avoid obstructions such as
places of cemeteries, archeological, historical
monument, public facilities like schools and
hospitals, utility services
Geometric design features
Facilitate easy grade and curvature
Enable ruling gradient in most sections
Void sudden changes in sight distance,
especially near crossings
Avoid sharp horizontal curves
Avoid road intersections near bend or at the top
or bottom of a hill
Page 69
HIGHWAY alignment
Precautions at river and railway
crossings
Bridges should be preferably be located
at right angles to the river flow, not
located on a horizontal curve
Crossing railway lines should avoid
intersections at gradient, frequent
crossing and recrossing
Page 70
HIGHWAY alignment
Topographical control points
The alignment, where possible should avoid
passing through
Marshy and low lying land with poor drainage
Flood prone areas
Unstable hilly features
Avalanche prone areas
Flat terrain-below 3%
Rolling terrain -3 to 25%
Mountainous terrain above 25%
A location on high ground should be preferred
rather than valley to avoid cross drainage works
Page 71
HIGHWAY alignment
Materials and constructional features
Deep cutting should be avoided
Earth work is to be balanced; quantities
for filling and excavation
Alignment should preferably be through
better soil area to minimize pavement
thickness
Location may be near sources of
embankment and pavement materials
Page 72
GEOMETRIC DESIGN -
ROAD/ HIGHWAY
Elements of design:
Sight distance
The length of road ahead visible to drivers
Stopping sight distance
Passing sight distance
Horizontal alignment
Superelevation rates (0.1 for rural areas,
0.06 for urban)
Minimum radius
Vertical alignment
Pavement design
Intersection and crossing design
Page 73
Horizontal alignment -
ROAD/ HIGHWAY
Adjustments in horizontal alignment can help reduce the potential for generating
roadway sediment. The objective in manipulating horizontal alignment is to strive to
minimize roadway cuts and fills and to avoid unstable areas. When unstable or
steep slopes must be traversed, adjustments in vertical alignment can minimize
impacts and produce a stable road by reducing cuts and fills
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Vertical alignment - ROAD/
HIGHWAY
Vertical curves or grade changes, like horizontal curves, require proper

consideration to minimize earthwork, cost, and erosion damage.
Vertical curves provide the transition between an incoming grade and an outgoing
grade.
The grade change is the difference between incoming grade and outgoing grade.
The shorter the vertical curve can be kept, the smaller the earthwork required.
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1. Pavement
Determined by
The volume and composition of traffic
Soil characteristics
Three general types
High
High volume traffic, smooth riding qualities
and good nonskid properties in all weathers
Intermediate
Slightly less costly and less strength than high
type pavement
Low
Range from surface treated earth roads and
stabilized materials to loose surface such as
earth and gravel
Page 77
2. Normal cross slope
Cross slope to minimise water ponding on
flat sections of uncurbed pavements due to
pavement imperfections or unequal
settlement
To control the flow of water adjacent to the
curb on curbed pavements
2.5% for high surface type
2.5 %- 3.5% for intermediate surface
2.5 % - 6% for low surface
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3. Lane widths
3.5 m normal road width
2.75 m minor roads and local street
3.5 m 3.75 m width - Divided
highways
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4. Shoulder
Emergency stopping free of the traffic lane
The sense of openness contributes to driving ease and
comfort
Sight distances is improved in in cut sections, thereby
improving safety
Highway capacity is improved and uniform speed is
encouraged
Structural support is given to the pavement
Minimum 0.6 m should be considered
Maximum 3 m for high type facilities
Should be sloped sufficiently
2 to 6 % - Bituminous and concrete surfaced shoulders
4 to 6% - gravel or crushed rock shoulders
6 % - turf shoulders
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5. Kerbs
Urban areas
Drainage control
Delineation of pedestrian walkways
Aesthetics
Two general classes of kerbs;
Barrier kerbs
High and steep faced
Designed to discourage vehicles from leaving
the roadway
Should not be used on expressways
Should not be used where the design speed
exceed 70 km/hr
Mountable kerbs
To define pavement edges of through carriageways
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6. Medians
Road carrying four or more lanes
To provide the desired freedom from
the interface of opposing traffic
To provide for speed changes and
storage of right-turning and U-turning
vehicles
To provide for future lanes
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Cross-section of a flexible
pavement
Wearing course
Binder course
Road base/ base course
Sub base
Sub grade
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Subgrade
Uppermost part of the soil
Natural or imported
Supporting the load transmitted from
the overlying layers
Page 84
Sub base :-
Consists of granular materials, either naturally or compacted
or ocassionally stabilized with cement or lime.
To disperse the load from the base course before
transmitting it to the subgrade.
Help as a drainage layer
Prevent moisture migration from subgrade
Menahan tanah subgrade dari bercampur dengan road base
Sand and aggregate
Standard CBR % : Crushed aggregate 30
Sand, Laterite, etc 20
Page 85
Base course / Road base (1)
Plays a prominent role in the support
and dispersion of the traffic
The thickest layer
3 types :
Crushed aggregates
Cement stabilised
Bitumen stabilised base courses
Page 86
Surface course
All the bound layer(s) within the pavement i.e wearing
course, intermediate course and binder course
An impermeable and flexible lining of high elastic modulus
Hot-mixed bituminous mixtures-consist of well graded
mixture of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and filler,
bound together with bitumen
Binder course
Overlying the base course
Supporting and dispersing the traffic load
Resists shear
Wearing course
Topmost layer
Resist abrasion and prevent skidding
Page 87
Drainage system
DRAINAGE is VERY! VERY! VERY! IMPORTANT,
both in relation to road pavement construction and
maintenance.
Good drainage will help to keep the water table (and
strength) of the road pavement in equilibrium.
Water below the road pavement must be kept low
and not be allowed to rise up into the construction
layers
The road pavement must be constructed so that it will
drain in the event of a failure of the integrity of the
surfacing layers, i.e. if water is able to enter the road
pavement there must be a path for it to exit.
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Important of surface
drainage
Softening the road surface when it is
constructed of soil or sand-clay or gravel or
water bound macadam
Washing out unprotected areas of the top
surface, erosion of side slopes forming
gullies, erosion of side drain
Generally softening of the ground giving
rise to land slides or slips
Softening the subgrade soil and decreasing
its bearing power
Page 89
Drainage systems
Page 90
Components of surface drainage
Shoulder slope
Roadside drain/ shoulder drain
Toe drain
Bench and Berm drain
Interceptor drain
Out fall drain
Median Drain
Kerb drain
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Road construction -
Three stages
Stage I Construction of road formation, i.e
earthwork
Stage II Construction of the pavement
structure and drainage
Stage III Provision of traffic engineering
facilities
Page 99
Road construction
Typical road construction equipment
Plant for clearing- bull dozers, tractors
Plant for drilling/ripping
Plant for each mining and moving
process- mechanical showels bulldozers,
scrapers, trucks
Plant for formation construction-graders,
scrapers, bulldozers
Compaction plant-rollers of various types
tracked, smooth, or rubber tyre
Bituminous mixing plant
Page 100
Site Preparation Services
Land clearing including demolition and environmentally advanced

recycling and disposal.
Grading and earth work.
Storm water drainage, retention ponds, and erosion control.
Road curbing and gutters.

Road construction including asphalt, paving, resurfacing, seal
coating and striping.
Site utility work including water and sewer lines.
Trucking services, heavy and specialized hauling, dump truck
services for dirt and stone.
Page 101
Earth work
Cut/fill
Cut and fill involve the cutting or excavation of earth
materials and the compaction as fill in conformance.
Fill is placed in horizontal lifts and then each lift of fill is
compacted to setup a uniformly compacted material.
Fill materials - Only suitable materials such as medium
stiff clays, clayey sand or other approved soils shall be
used for filling
Materials from swamps, top soils and other highly
organic clay or silts, materials containing boulders
materials, materials with chemical composition or at
their moisture content will not compact properly shall
not be used for filling
Page 102
Soil compaction
Process by which a mass of soil
consisting of solid soil particles, air and
water is reduced in volume by momentary
application of loads, such as rolling,
tamping or vibration
Compaction of the soil generally
increases its shear strength, decreases its
compressibility and decreases its
permeability
Page 103
Zero-air-voids
Max.dry line (100%
density saturation)
Dry
density
Optimum m/c
Moisture Content
Fig.1
Page 104
Fill widening
Fill widening of 0.30 m are recommended where fill slope height is less than
2.00 m.
Fill slope height in excess of 2.00 m should have 0,60 m of fill widening.
Fill slope height in excess of 6.00 m should be avoided altogether because
of potential stability problems.
Page 105
Road construction
Compacting subgrade
Rolling using 8-10 t smooth wheeled roller
Rolling continued till 100% maximum dry density
is achieved and the surface appears to be well
closed
Spreading coarse aggregates
The required amount of course aggregates is
spread uniformly on the prepared foundation
Using a 6-10 t smooth wheel roller / equivalent
capacity vibratory roller.
Bituminous road construction
Binder coarse
Wearing coarse
Page 106
Hanshin Expressway Goes Through a
Building
Page 107
ROAD MAINTENANCE
Function:
(1) preserve the road in its originally constructed condition,
(2) protect adjacent resources and user safety,
(3) provide efficient, convenient travel along the route.
Unfortunately, maintenance is often neglected or improperly performed
resulting in rapid deterioration of the road and eventual failure from both
climatic and vehicle use impacts.
It follows that it is impossible to build and use a road that requires no

maintenance
Page 108
Road Surface Maintenance
Drainage System Maintenance
Drainage structures must be kept free of debris and

obstructions.
On newly constructed roads, or in upstream areas where

heavy earth moving is taking place (e.g., urban
development, logging, mining, etc.), cleaning may have to b
more frequent.
Page 109
Road Surface Maintenance
Road surfaces should be reworked only as necessary to provide a

smooth running surface and a good crown or slope for drainage.
All-season roads will require continual monitoring for surface and

subgrade wear or deterioration.
Rutting and loss of ballast often occur during rainy season use. Snow
removal equipment can also destroy the road surface by removing or
altering the crown and removing ballast.
A plan should be in place to provide ballast when necessary to maintain

continued use of the road.
Herbicides used to control roadside vegetation represent the final

class of road maintenance compounds that present a potential
health or water pollution hazard if used incorrectly. Compounds
such as dioxin, contained in 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, are extremely toxic
even in minute quantities. Page 110
Discussion topics
1. What are the factors controlling alignment of roads
2. What are the important engineering characteristics of
soils that are likely to influence the performance of a
road?
3. Discuss the basic principles of field compaction. Can
climatic conditions influence compaction in road
construction?
4. What is Pavement deterioration; causes and
rehabilitation
5. A properly designed highway requires a well-designed
drainage system.discuss
Page 111
Comments
Comments:
Rural and urban roads are the same in terms of service
function, and land service
Volumes are higher on urban roads than on rural roads
Design speeds on urban roads are lower than in rural roads
Vehicles types are different, especially for local streets
Government agency responsible for each type of

road:
Municipal government -urban: local, collectors
Provincial government rural - freeways
Similar roads have similar designs, construction,
maintenance and operation
Similar roads: similar costs
Page 112
BRIDGES Development
Process and Functional
Classification
Page 113
Top 10 Most Popular Bridges
in the World
Page 114
1. Tower Bridge (London,
England)
Tower Bridge is one of the most famous landmarks in London and one of
the worlds most recognisable bridges!
Page 115
Golden Gate Bridge (San
Francisco, US)
Completed in 1937 as the then longest suspension bridge in the world

at a total length of 8,921ft, the Golden Gate Bridge is one of the most
famous bridges in the world. SituatedTemplates
Powerpoint in San Francisco, the bridge was
an enormous construction achievement at the time. Page 116
Sydney Harbour Bridge
(Sydney, Australia)
Sydney Harbour Bridge is the widest

long-span bridge in the world at a total
length of 3,770ft!
Page 117
Ponte Vecchio (Florence, Italy
)
he Ponte Vecchio is the oldest wholly-

stone built, segmental arch bridge in
Europe!
Page 118
5. Gateshead Millenium
Bridge (Gateshead, England)
The award winning $44 million

Gateshead Millennium Bridge is the first
and only tilting
Powerpoint bridge in the world!
Templates
Page 119
Erasmusbrug (Rotterdam,
Netherlands)
Erasmusbrug is popular for its aesthetic
appeal, it is nicknamed "The Swan" due
to the shape of the pylon supporting it!
Page 120
Westminster Bridge (London,
England)
The clock tower on the far right is
popularly called the "Big Ben" and is
another important landmark in London!
Page 121
8. Millau Bridge (Tarn Valley,
France)
Millau Bridge is the largest cable-stayed vehicular bridge in the world!
Page 122
Fehmarn Belt Bridge (Baltic
Sea, Germany and Denmark)
When completed in 2018 the Fehmarn Belt Bridge will stretch

11.8 miles and connect the German island of Fehmarn with the
Danish island of Lolland at an estimated cost of $2.2 billion. The
proposed bridge has been controversial with opposition from
businesses and conservationists who fear it may damage local
wildlife. Page 123
The Kintai Bridge (Iwakuni,
Japan)
Possibly one of the most unlucky bridges in the world, Kintaikyo

was reconstructed in 1673 after every other attempt to cross the
Nishiki River via bridge had been foiled by seasonal flooding. The
five wooden arches remained intact right up to 1950 when a
typhoon finally destroyed them. Templates
Powerpoint However, the bridge was again
reconstructed three years later and is still crossable today! Page 124
Nanpu Bridge (Shanghai, China)
The spiral bridge approach in puxi is considered to be a wonder

in world bridge construction. It is made
Powerpoint to minimize the amount
Templates
of land used by the bridge approach. Page 125
Magdeburg Water Bridge
(Magdeburg, Germany)
The Magdeburg Water Bridge is exactly what its name suggests;

a bridge made over water!
Page 126
Other than the above given names,
here are some more names of the
most famous bridges of the world.
Chain Bridge, Hungary Chengyang Bridge, China

Ponte Vecchio, Italy Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan
Pont des Arts, France Alcntara Bridge, Spain
Bosphorus Bridge, Turkey Millau Bridge, France
Charles Bridge, Czech Republic Chapel Bridge, Switzerland
Rialto Bridge, Italy Galata Bridge, Turkey
Jacques Cartier Bridge, Canada Tsing Ma Bridge, Hong Kong
Stari Most, Bosnia and Banpo Bridge, South Korea
Herzegovina Magdeburg Water Bridge,
Great Belt Bridge, Denmark Germany
Howrah Bridge, India
Page 127
Bridge is not a construction but it is a
concept, the concept of crossing over large
spans of land or huge masses of water.
The idea behind a bridge is to connect two
far-off points eventually reducing the distance
between them.
Apart from this poetic aspect of bridges,
there is a technical aspect to them that
classifies bridges on the basis of the
techniques of their construction
Page 128
Beam Bridge: A beam bridge was derived from
the log bridge. It is built from shallow steel beams,
box girders and concrete. Highway overpasses,
flyovers or walkways are often beam bridges. A
horizontal beam supported at its ends comprises
the structure of a beam bridge. The construction of
a beam bridge is the simplest of all the types of
bridges.
Page 129
Truss Bridge: A truss bridge is built by
connecting straight elements with the help of
pin joints. Owing to the abundance of wood in
the United States, truss bridges of the olden
times used timbers for compression and iron
rods for bearing tension. Truss bridges came
to be commonly constructed from the 1870s
to the 1930s. Deck truss railroad bridge that
extends over the Erie Canal is one of the
many famous truss bridges.
Page 130
Arch Bridge: Going by its name, it is arch-shaped
and has supports at both its ends. The weight of an
arch-shaped bridge is forced into the supports at
either end. The Mycenaean Arkadiko Bridge in
Greece of 1300 BC is the oldest existing arch-
shaped bridge. Etruscans and the ancient Greeks
were aware of arches since long. But the Romans
were foremost in discovering the use of arches in
the construction of bridges. Arch bridges have now
evolved into compression arch suspended-deck
bridge enabling the use of light and strongly tensile
materials in their construction.
Page 131
Suspension Bridge: A bridge falling under this
category is suspended from cables. The
suspension cables are anchored at each end of
the bridge. The load that the bridge bears converts
into the tension in the cables. These cables stretch
beyond the pillars up to the dock-level supports
further to the anchors in the ground. The Golden
Gate Bridge of USA, Tsing Ma Bridge of China and
the Humber Bridge of England are some of the
famous suspension bridges.
Page 132
Cable-stayed Bridge: Structured similar to the
suspension bridges, the difference lies in the
amount of cable used. Less cable is required
and consequently, the towers holding the
cables are shorter. Two variants of cable-
stayed bridges exist. In the harp design, cables
are attached to multiple points of the tower thus
making them parallel. In the fan variant of
design, all the cables connect to the tower or
pass over it. Cable Bridge boasts of being the
first cable-stayed bridge of USA. Centennial
Bridge is another well-known cable-stayed
bridge.
Page 133
Cantilever bridge: Cantilevers are the structures
that project along the X-axis in space. They are
supported only on one end. Bridges intended to
carry lesser traffic may use simple beams while
those aimed at handling larger traffic make use of
trusses or box girders. The 1800 feet Quebec
Bridge of Canada and the San Francisco-
Oakland Bay Bridge that is 1400 feet long are
some examples of the cantilever bridges.
Page 134
Truss Bridge Types
Truss is a structure composed of triangular

units which consists of straight beams
connected at the joints called nodes. The
application of this principle and their
improvisation further led to the invention
and design of various types of truss
bridges around the world. These are some
truss bridge types with examples:
Page 135
Howe Truss Bridge
This is named after its inventor William Howe, and was designed for the use of timber as
diagonal compressions and iron as vertical tensions. Howe truss was later improvised to use
steel for its construction and became a forerunner of iron bridges. These truss bridge types
are popular as railroad bridges, and a well preserved example is the Comstock Bridge over
the Salmon river, Colchester.
Allan Truss Bridge

This was designed by Percy Allan, hence it was named as Allan Truss. Hampden Bridge in
Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia, is one of the most famous bridges and an
example of Allan Truss Bridge. It is the first of this type and constructed with wood and
ironbark for strength. This is the simplest among the other truss bridges, economical due to
the use of less material and easier to repair.
Truss Arch Bridge

This type of truss bridge combines the design of truss and arch bridges, in which the trusses
are fitted within the arch. A famous example of this type is the Iron Bridge across the river
Severn, Shropshire, England.
Page 136
Bollman Truss Bridge
Named after its inventor Wendell Bollman, this type of truss bridge is built only using metals, mostly
wrought iron and cast iron. Most of the railroad bridges around the world are built by adopting this design
due to the ease of assembly and its durability. Though common after its invention, only one bridge of this
type is available today. The oldest and most historic, the Bollman Truss Rail Road Bridge in Savage,
Maryland, is an example of revolutionary truss bridge design in engineering history.
Pratt Truss Bridge

It is exactly the opposite of Howe truss bridge in structure. Here, the diagonals are in tension and the
vertical elements are under compression, both sloping towards the center in a V-shape. Earlier Pratt truss
bridges were made of timber and iron truss, but later it was made of iron only. It has many variations, due
to the modifications made on this design, to make it lighter, but was originally designed by Thomas and
Celeb Pratt. An example of these truss bridge types is the Schell Bridge in Northfield, Massachusetts.
Bowstring Arch Truce Bridge

The father of tied arch bridge is considered to be Squire Whipple. This involves complicated
engineering among the various truss bridge types, where the tension of the top chord is
supported by the bottom chord, rather than being supported by the ground foundation. Due to
this quality, tied arch bridges are usually built in areas of unstable soil. An example of this type
is the Torikai Big Bridge over the Yado river, Osaka, Japan.
Page 137
Cantilever Bridge
Cantilever bridges are named after its use of cantilevers and involve one of
the most complex designs among different truss bridges. For supporting
heavy load, cantilever bridges either use steel trusses or concrete box
girders. For long bridges, steel truss cantilevers are used, which gives it
strength and can be easily constructed. The Quebec Bridge in Quebec,
Canada, is not only listed as one of the famous bridges of the world, but is
also the longest cantilever bridge around.
Bailey Bridge
This type of truss bridge was originally designed by Donald Bailey for use by
military engineering units. These are portable bridges and are small enough
for easy transportation, handling, installation and reuse. They are modular
bridges, and unlike previous portable bridges used by the military, these do
not require complicated equipments while assembling, and are very cost-
effective.
Page 138
Comstock Bridge
Over Salmon River north of Route 16
Colchester-East Hampton
Covered timber truss
Length: 2 spans, 110' overall, 80 Maximum
span length
Built in 1873
The Howe Truss Bridge (designed

by William Howe ) was patented in
1840. The advantages of the Howe
Truss Bridge to the railroad companies
of the era were that it was easy to
prefabricate offsite and to ship by rail.139
Page
Page 140
Truss Arch
Bridge
Page 141
Bollman
Truss
Bridge
Page 142
Pratt Truss Bridge
Page 143
Bowstring
Arch Truss
Bridge
Page 144
Cantilever Bridge
Page 145
Bailey Bridge
Page 146
Page 147

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CONSTRUCTION

Consider factors and select preferred alternative

During the right-of-way acquisition and

Assessment of operating conditions

A place is inaccessible when the outlay to get there is greater

Arterial: highest level of service, high mobility,

A very wide range of alternative ways of providing accessibility must be

Roads departments should be participants in the process, not the

When can accessibility planning be allowed to fold itself up into a

We propose a utilitarian criterion. For example, road network planning

The approach in rural areas must be one of accessibility

1. Accessibility planning is the primary set. It covers measuring

1. Transport planning is a sub-set, which covers all measures

1. Finally, road planning (quality, technology choice,

Rather, it now encompasses the right-of-way and all

Context-sensitive design, now the goal of good road

The same development, arranged so that buildings front the

Until recently, the pattern for almost all new growth

both the historical pattern of development as well

In this development pattern, land uses are arranged

Most travel between different land uses is made on

Vertical curves or grade changes, like horizontal curves, require proper

Land clearing including demolition and environmentally advanced

Grading and earth work.

Storm water drainage, retention ponds, and erosion control.

Road curbing and gutters.

It follows that it is impossible to build and use a road that requires no

Drainage System Maintenance

Drainage structures must be kept free of debris and

On newly constructed roads, or in upstream areas where

Road surfaces should be reworked only as necessary to provide a

All-season roads will require continual monitoring for surface and

A plan should be in place to provide ballast when necessary to maintain

Herbicides used to control roadside vegetation represent the final

Government agency responsible for each type of

Completed in 1937 as the then longest suspension bridge in the world

Sydney Harbour Bridge is the widest

he Ponte Vecchio is the oldest wholly-

The award winning $44 million

When completed in 2018 the Fehmarn Belt Bridge will stretch

Possibly one of the most unlucky bridges in the world, Kintaikyo

The spiral bridge approach in puxi is considered to be a wonder

The Magdeburg Water Bridge is exactly what its name suggests;

Chain Bridge, Hungary Chengyang Bridge, China

Truss is a structure composed of triangular

Allan Truss Bridge

Truss Arch Bridge

Pratt Truss Bridge

Bowstring Arch Truce Bridge

The Howe Truss Bridge (designed

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