GAGAL NAFAS
Oleh :
Lisbeth Maria Laurentia
Muhammad Nabil
Raden Fitri Fatimah
Preceptor :
Hendarsyah Suryadinata, dr., SpPD
Afiatin, dr., Sp.PD-KGH
Functions of Respiratory System
Gas exchange between blood and air
Move air to and from exchange
surfaces
Protect exchange surfaces from
environmental variations (pollution)
and pathogens (bacteria & viruses)
Produce sound
Detect olfactory stimuli (scent)
The Components
of the Respiratory
System
Components of the Respiratory System
Upper Respiratory System
Nose, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses
Pharynx
Lower Respiratory System
Larynx
Trachea, bronchi
Lungs
Bronchioles
Alveoli (gas exchange)
The Respiratory Tract
Conducting portion
Conduct the air movement
From nares to small bronchioles
Respiratory portion
Gas exchange region
Respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
The Bronchi
Trachea forms two branches
Right and left primary bronchi
Primary bronchi branch
Form secondary bronchi
Each ventilates a lobe
Secondary bronchi branch
Form tertiary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi branch repeatedly
Cartilage decreases, smooth
muscle increases
The Bronchioles
Cartilage absent
Diameter < 1.0 mm
Terminal bronchioles deliver air to a
single lobule
Smooth muscle in wall controlled by ANS
Sympathetic causes bronchodilation
Parasympathetic causes
bronchoconstriction
Excess bronchoconstriction is asthma
The Bronchial
Tree
Figure 15-6(a)
The Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli
Gas exchange regions of lung
Respiratory bronchioles lead into
alveolar ducts
Ducts lead into alveolar sacs
Sacs are clusters of
interconnected alveoli
Gives lung an open, spongy look
About 150 million/lung
The Lobules of the Lung
Figure 15-6(b)
Alveolar Organization
Figure 15-7(a)
Alveolar
Organization
Figure 15-7(c)
Alveolar
Organization
Figure 15-7(d)
The Gross Anatomy
of the Lungs
Figure 15-8
Anatomical Relationships
in the Thoracic Cavity
Respiratory Physiology
Three Integrated Processes
1. Pulmonary ventilation - Moving air into and
out of the respiratory tract; breathing
2. Gas exchange - Diffusion between alveoli
and circulating blood, and between blood
and interstitial fluids
3. Gas transport - Movement of oxygen from
alveoli to cells, and carbon dioxide from cells
to alveoli
Respiratory Physiology
1. Pulmonary Ventilation
Respiratory cycle - A single breath
consisting of inspiration (inhalation) and
expiration (exhalation)
Respiratory rate - Number of cycles per
minute
Adult normal rate 12 to 18 breaths/minute
Child normal rate 18 to 20 breaths/minute
Alveolar ventilation - Movement of air into
and out of the alveoli
AT REST INHALATION EXHALATION
Sternocleido-
mastoid
Scalene muscles
Diaphragm
2. Gas Exchange
External respiration
Takes place in pulmonary circuit
Diffusion of gases between alveolar air and
pulmonary capillary blood across the respiratory
membrane
Internal respiration
Takes place in systemic circuit
Diffusion of gases between blood and interstitial
fluids across the capillary endothelium
Diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane
3. Gas Transport
Arterial blood entering peripheral
capillaries delivers oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide
Gas reactions with blood are
completely reversible
In general, a small change in plasma
PO2 causes a large change in how
much oxygen is bound to hemoglobin
Respiratory Physiology
Figure 15-13
b. Oxygen Transport
Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin
(98.5%) and is dissolved in plasma
(1.5%)
Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation
curve shows that hemoglobin is
almost completely saturated when
P02 is 80 mm Hg or above. At lower
partial pressures, the hemoglobin
releases oxygen.
A shift of the curve to the left because
of an increase in pH, a decrease in
carbon dioxide, or a decrease in
temperature results in an increase in
the ability of hemoglobin to hold
oxygen
Plasma Red blood cells
Cells in
Pulmonary peripheral
capillary tissues
Hb
Hb O2 Hb O2 O2 O2
O2 Hb O2
O2
Alveolar
air O2
Systemic
space capillary
O2 pickup O2 delivery
Figure 15-14(a)
1 of 5
Plasma Red blood cell
Pulmonary
capillary
O2 O2
Alveolar
air O2
space
Figure 15-14(a)
2 of 5
Plasma Red blood cell
Pulmonary
capillary
Hb
Hb O2
O2 O2
Alveolar
air O2
space
O2 pickup
Figure 15-14(a)
3 of 5
Plasma Red blood cells
Pulmonary
capillary
Hb
Hb O2 Hb O2
O2 O2
Alveolar
air O2
Systemic
space capillary
O2 pickup O2 delivery
Figure 15-14(a)
4 of 5
Plasma Red blood cells
Cells in
Pulmonary peripheral
capillary tissues
Hb
Hb O2 Hb O2 O2 O2
O2 Hb O2
O2
Alveolar
air O2
Systemic
space capillary
O2 pickup O2 delivery
Figure 15-14(a)
5 of 5
Cl Pulmonary HCO3 Chloride
capillary
HCO3
shift
Hb H+ + HCO3 Cl
H+ + HCO3 Hb
Hb H+
H2CO3
H2CO3
Hb H +
CO2 CO2 CO2
H2O H2O
CO2
Hb CO2
Hb
Hb CO2 Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
Figure 15-14(b)
1 of 7
CO2
CO2
Systemic
capillary
CO2 pickup
Figure 15-14(b)
2 of 7
H2CO3
CO2
H2O
Hb CO2
Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
CO2 pickup
Figure 15-14(b)
3 of 7
HCO3 Chloride
shift
H+ + HCO3 Cl
Hb
H2CO3
Hb H +
CO2
H2O
Hb CO2
Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
CO2 pickup
Figure 15-14(b)
4 of 7
Cl Pulmonary HCO3 Chloride
capillary
HCO3
shift
H+ + HCO3 Cl
Hb
H2CO3
Hb H +
CO2
H2O
CO2
Hb CO2
Hb CO2 Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
Figure 15-14(b)
5 of 7
Cl Pulmonary HCO3 Chloride
capillary
HCO3
shift
Hb H+ + HCO3 Cl
H+ + HCO3 Hb
Hb H+
H2CO3
H2CO3
Hb H +
CO2 CO2 CO2
H2O H2O
CO2
Hb CO2
Hb CO2 Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
Figure 15-14(b)
6 of 7
Cl Pulmonary HCO3 Chloride
capillary
HCO3
shift
Hb H+ + HCO3 Cl
H+ + HCO3 Hb
Hb H+
H2CO3
H2CO3
Hb H +
CO2 CO2 CO2
H2O H2O
CO2
Hb CO2
Hb
Hb CO2 Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
Figure 15-14(b)
7 of 7
The Control of Respiration
Figure 15-16
PENDAHULUAN
Gejala
Penurunan kesadaran
Gelisah
Dispneu (takipneu, bradipneu)
Tremor
Bicara kacau
Sakit kepala
Papil edema
Diagnosis
Anamnesa
Penurunan aktivitas, perubahan status
mental, keluhan nafas pendek, sesak atau
sakit kepala
Riwayat menelan benda asing dan ISPA
sebelumnya
Pemeriksaan Fisik
AGD
Membedakan gagal nafas akut atau kronik
Menilai berat-ringan
Indikator klinis yang paling sensitif adalah
peningkatan laju pernafasan
Interpretasi: keseimbangan asam basa dan
perubahan oksigenasi jaringan
Pemeriksaan penunjang
Pulse oximetry
Nilai kritis : 90%
Capnography
menganalisa kadar CO2 darah secara
kontinu
SADT
mendeteksi anemia, terjadinya hipoksia
jaringan
Kimia darah
menilai fungsi ginjal dan hati, elektrolit
Serum kreatinin dan troponin
membedakan infark miokard dengan
gagal nafas.
Kadar TSH
pada pasien gagal nafas hiperapni
kronik, untuk membedakan dengan
hipotiroid
Lab lain
menilai status nutrisi: albumin,
prealbumin, transferin, TIBP,
keseimbangan nitrogen, indeks
kreatinin, jumlah limfosit total
Pemeriksaan Radiologi
Radiologi Dada
untuk membedakan edema pulmonal
kardiogenik atau nonkardiogenik
Ekokardiografi
tidak dilakukan secara rutin, menilai
fungsi ventrikel kanan dan tekanan arteri
pulmoner dengan tepat untuk pasien
gagal nafas hiperkapni kronik
Pulmonary Function Tests
nilai FEV1 dan FVC yang normal
menunjukkan gangguan pusat kontrol
nafas
penurunan ratio FEV1 dan FVC:
obstruksi
DEFINITE DIAGNOSIS
AGD memenuhi salah satu dibawah ini:
PaO2 arteri < 60 mmHg
PaCO2 > 45 mmHg, kecuali
peningkatan yang terjadi kompensasi
alkalosis metabolik
Sebaiknya terdapat sesak napas berat,
batuk, sianosis, pulsus paradoksus,
stridor, aritmia, takikardia, atau
konstriksi pupil
PENATALAKSANAAN DAN PENGOBATAN