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m  mmmm  


m
 
V It is defined as ¬  ¬ 
¬
 
 ¬¬
 ¬
p   
Ê load is said to be a dead
or steady load, when it does not change in
magnitude or direction.
Jë     
Ê load is said to be a
live or variable load, when it changes continually.
xm    
Ê load is
said to be a shock load, when it is suddenly
applied or removed.
¦  
Ê load is said to be an impact
load, when it is applied with some initial velocity
mmm
V Ýhen some external system of forces or loads act
on a body, the internal forces (equal and opposite)
are set up at various sections of the body, which
resist the external forces. This internal force per
unit area at any section of the body is known as
   
Stress, ǔ = M 
V In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in
Pascal (Pa) such that 1Pa = 1N/m2
m 

V Ýhen a system of forces or loads act on a body, it


undergoes some deformation. This deformation
per unit length is known as  
 
Strain, dž = Džl l
or Džl = dž.l
m  mmm  m 

V Ýhen a body is subjected to two equal and


opposite axial   M (also called tensile load)
then the stress induced at any section of the body
is known as    
V pue to the tensile load, there will be a decrease
in cross-sectional area and an increase in length
of the body
V The ratio of the increase in length to the original
length is known as   
m  mmm  m 
M = ial tensile force acting on the body,
 = Cross-sectional area of the body,
l = Original length, and
Džl = Increase in length.
è Tensile stress,  
and tensile strain, 0  
 m¬ m¬
Self Study
? m   m Y   m 
m ?
V
¬states that when a material is
loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain, i.e.
D 0or 


where w is a constant of proportionality known as


?      or      ¬

 ¦
V  coil chain of a crane required to carry a maimum
load of 50 kN, is shown

Find the diameter of the link stock, if the permissible


tensile stress in the link material is not to eceed
75MMa.
M = 50kN = 50000N; ǔt = 75MMa = 75N mm2
 = ( ¦) × d2 = 0.7854d2
the maximum load (M),
50000 = ǔt.  = 75 × 0.785¦d2 = 58.9d2
d2 = 50000 58.9 = 850

¬ 
 ¦¦
V rectangular base plate is fied at each of its
four corners by a 20mm diameter bolt and nut
as shown
The plate rests on washers of 22 mm internal
diameter and 50 mm eternal diameter. Copper
washers which are placed between the nut and
the plate are of 22mm internal diameter and 44
mm eternal diameter. If the base plate carries
a load of 120kN (including self-weight, which is
equally distributed on the four corners),
calculate the stress on the lower washers before
the nuts are tightened.
What could be the stress in the upper and lower
washers, when the nuts are tightened so as to
produce a tension of 5kN on each bolt?
 ¦¦
d = 20mm; d1 = 22mm; d2 = 50mm; d3 =
22mm ; d4 = 44mm ; M1 = 120kN; M2 = 5kN
Êrea of lower washers:

Êrea of upper washers

120kN on the four washers is equally


distributed. Load on each lower washer
before the nuts are tightened,
M1 = 120/¦ = 30kN = 30000 N
 ¦¦
Stress on the lower washers before the nuts
are tightened:
ǔc1 = P1/Ê1 = 30000/1583 = 18.95N/mm2 =
¬
m  ¬ 
¬  
Tension on each bolt when the nut is
tightened =
P2 = 5kN = 5000N
Stress on the upper washers when the nut is
tightened
ǔc2 = P2/Ê2 = 5000/11¦0 = ¦.38N/mm2 =
¦x¬
 ¦¦

m  ¬ 


¬  
ǔc2 = (P1 + P2)/Ê1 = (30000 + 5000)/1583 =
22.11N/mm2 = JJ¬

¬¦? 
m
 mmm ÊNp m
 m 
V Ýhen a body is subjected to  equal and
opposite forces acting ¬   ¬ across the
resisting section, as a result of which the body
tends to shear off the section, then the stress
induced is called   

V The corresponding strain is known as  


 and it is measured by the angular
deformation accompanying the shear stress
m
 mmm ÊNp m
 m 
V Shear stress, Ǖ = (Tangential Force) / ( esisting
Êrea)
V Shear stress on the rivet cross-section:
 m   m
 mmm
1. Êll lap joints and single cover butt joints are in
single shear, while the butt joints with double cover
plates are in double shear.
2. In case of shear, the area involved is parallel to the
external force applied.
3. Ýhen the holes are to be punched in the metal
plates, then the tools used to perform the operations
must overcome the ultimate shearing resistance of
the material to be cut
V If a hole of diameter ¶d· is to be punched in a metal
plate of thickness ¶t·, then the area to be sheared
 = d × t
The force required to punch a hole
M =  × Ǖu = d × t × Ǖu
m
   m Y   m 
  ?

V It has been found experimentally that within the


elastic limit, the shear stress is directly
proportional to the shear strain

Ǖ D ù or Ǖ = C.ù or Ǖ ù = C

= Modulus of rigidity. It is also denoted by N or G


 ¦
V  pull of 80kN is transmitted from a bar  to the bar
? through a pin as shown

If the maimum permissible tensile stress in the bars is


100N mm2 and the permissible shear stress in the pin
is 80N mm2, find the diameter of bars and of the pin
M = 80kN = 80000N; ǔt = 100N mm2 ; Ǖ = 80N mm2
p     
Let pb = piameter of the bars in mm
Êrea, b =  pb)2 = 0.7854 (pb)2
 ¦
Permissible tensile stress in the bar (ǔt)

(pb)2 = 101846 100 = 1018.46


p 
p   
Let pp = piameter of the pin in mm
Since the tensile load M tends to shear off the pin at
two sections i.e. at  and Cp, therefore the pin is in
double shear. Thus, the resisting area:
p = 2 × (Ⱥ/4) (pp)2 = 1.571(pp)2
 ¦

The permissible shear stress in the pin (Ǖ),

(pp)2 = 50.9 × 103/80 = 636.5


or p JJ
'  mmm Y  m
 mmm
VÊ localized compressive stress at the surface of
contact between two members of a machine part,
that are relatively at rest is known as  
    
V onsider a riveted joint subjected to a load M as
shown

ǔb = M  = M (d.t)
d.t =    area of the rivet
V The local compression which exists at the surface
of contact between two members of a machine
part that are in relative motion, is called
    
'  mmm

V The journal exerts a bearing pressure on the curved


surfaces of the brasses immediately below it
V The distribution of this bearing pressure will not be
uniform, but it will be in accordance with the shape of
the surfaces in contact and deformation
characteristics of the two materials.
V The average bearing pressure for a journal supported
in a bearing is given by
pb = M l.d
M = adial load on the journal; d = piameter of the
journal; l = Length of the journal in contact
 ¦

V Two plates 16 mm thick are joined by a double


riveted lap joint as shown. The rivets are 25mm in
diameter. Find the crushing stress induced between
the plates and the rivet, if the maimum tensile load
on the joint is 48kN
t = 16mm; d = 25mm; M = 48kN = 48000N; n = 2
Since the joint is double riveted, therefore, strength of
two rivets in bearing (or crushing) is taken
rushing stress induced between the plates and the
rivets:
ǔb = M  = M (d.t.n) = 48000 (16.25.2)
=   

wxample ¦.9 -> po it yourself


mmmm    !ëp "
#ë$ % &'ëm-> m  m
Ý   mmm
VÝhen designing machine parts, it is desirable to
keep the stress lower than the maximum or
ultimate stress at which failure of the material
takes place. This stress is known as the 3 
 or     
It is also known as safe
or allowable stress
 : By failure it is not meant actual breaking of
the material. Some machine parts are said to fail
when they have plastic deformation set in them,
and they no more perform their function
satisfactorily
    m?  m
V It is defined, in general, as the ¬  
¬     
FoS = (Maximum stress)/(Ýorking stress)
V In case of ductile materials, where the yield point
is clearly defined, the factor of safety is based
upon the yield point stress.
FoS = (Yield point stress)/(Ýorking stress)
V In case of brittle materials, the yield point is not
well defined as for ductile materials. Therefore,
the factor of safety for brittle materials is based
on ultimate stress
FoS = (Ultimate stress)/(Ýorking stress)
SwLw TIYN YF FÊ TY YF SÊFwTY -> m 
m


 NUMw I ÊL P YBLwMS 1
TY 10 ( ÊPTw ¦)
 ' 
V Ê square tie bar 20mm × 20mm in section carries a
load. It is attached to a bracket by means of 6 bolts.
alculate the diameter of the bolt if the maximum
stress in the tie bar is 150N/mm2 and in the bolts is
75N/mm2
  : ÊT = 20 × 20 = ¦00mm2; n = 6; db = ?; l 
150N/mm2; l  75N/mm2
m   : The load is shared equally by the tie rod
and six bolts
P = l × ÊT = 150 × ¦00 = 60000N
P = l × Êb × n
60000 = 75 × (Ⱥ/4)d2 × 6
 P 
 ' 
V Two circular rods of 50mm diameter are connected
by a knuckle joint, as shown

by a pin of ¦0mm in diameter. If a pull of 120kN acts


at each end, find the tensile stress in the rod and
shear stress in the pin.
  : drod = 50mm; dpin = ¦0mm; P = 120000N; l  ?;
IJ?
m   : Êrod = (Ⱥ/4)drod2  (Ⱥ/4)502  1963.5mm2
l  P/Êrod = 120000/1963.5
l 
 ' 

IJ  P/(2 × Êpin)
= 120000/(2 × Ⱥ/4 × ¦02)
 

 m  m
 mmm
V Ýhen a machine member is subjected to the
action of couple acting in parallel planes (or
torque or twisting moment), then the machine
member is said to be subjected to  
V The stress set up by torsion is known as
     
It is zero at the
centroidal axis and maximum at the outer
surface
 m  m
 mmm

V The maximum torsional shear stress at the outer


surface of the shaft may be obtained from the following
equation:

V † = Torsional shear stress induced at the outer surface


of the shaft; ƒ= Second moment of area of the section
about its polar axis or polar moment of inertia; ! =
Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material; lj = Êngle of
twist in radians on a length l

  m    
V   ¬ ¬  ¬ 
   ¬  
1. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.
2. The twist along the length of the shaft is
uniform.
3. The normal cross-sections of the shaft, which
were plane and circular before twist, remain
plane and circular after twist.
¦. Êll diameters of the normal cross-section which
were straight before twist, remain straight with
their magnitude unchanged, after twist.
5. The maximum shear stress induced in the shaft
due to the twisting moment does not exceed its
elastic limit value.

  m    

From the torsional equation we know that:

For a solid shaft of diameter (d), the polar moment of


inertia

In case of a hollow shaft with external diameter (do) and


internal diameter (di), the polar moment of inertia

  m    

Substitute k = di/do

V The strength of the shaft means the maximum


torque transmitted by it. The power transmitted
by the shaft (in watts) is given by:
P = 2ȺN /60
 .ǔ
As ǔ  2ȺN/60
 ¦
V  hollow shaft is required to transmit 600kW at
110r.p.m., the maimum torque being 20% greater
than the mean. The shear stress is not to eceed
63MMa and twist in a length of 3m not to eceed
1.4deg. Find the eternal diameter of the shaft, if the
internal diameter to the eternal diameter is 3 8.
Take modulus of rigidity as 84GMa
  : M = 600 kW = 600000W; N = 110rpm; Tmax = 1.2
Tmean; Ǖ = 63MMa = 63N/mm2 ; l = 3m = 3000mm ; lj =
1.4 ×  180 = 0.024rad ; k = di do = 3 8 ; C = 84GMa
= 8¦ × 109N/m2 = 8¦000N/mm2
m   :
Power transmitted by the shaft (M):
600000 = 2
  
 ¦
Tmean = 600000 11.52 = 52000Nm = 52 × 106N-mm
maximum torque transmitted by the shaft:
Tma = 1.2Tmean = 1.2 × 52 × 106 = 62.4 × 106N-mm
Now we find the diameter of the shaft considering
strength and stiffness
!      
Maximum torque transmitted by the shaft:
Tma = (Ⱥ/16) × IJ (do)3(1 ² k4)
62.4 × 106 = (Ⱥ/16) × 63 × (do)3 [1 ² (3/8)¦
€  J

J!       


Polar moment of inertia of a hollow circular section:
J = (Ⱥ/32) [do4 ± di4]  (Ⱥ/32) (do)4(1 ² k4)
 ¦

ƒ   

   

    § È 


62.4 × 106  
 
 × 0.02¦)/3000
€  (


|  
M  À  ! "   "  #$

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