Transducers

Dr. Buddhika Vidanagama (MBBS,MD,FRCA)

Consultant Anaesthetist
Teaching Hospital Karapitiya
 Measuring systems

Display/record signals
Appreciated by human senses
temperature
Pressure etc.
Detect & display/record signals
Outside range of human perception
ECG
EMG etc.
 No measuring system is perfect
Can show erroneous values
User should be able to
Identify errors
Rectify them if possible
User should have some knowledge
about working principles of
measuring systems
Components of a measuring system

Detector
Processor
Display
Actuator
Alarm
Feedback
 Storage
Patient Sensor Processor
Display
Alarm

Alarm Actuator Control unit

 Processing devices
Simple
Liquid manometer
Thermometer
With amplification
 Energy forms measured
Electrical
Mechanical (resistive, capacitive etc.)
Heat (thermoelectric)
Sound (Piezoelectric)
Light (photoelectric cell)
Chemical (fuel cell)
 Definition of a Transducer
Any instrument which is used to
change one form of energy to
another is known as a transducer
 Transduction methods
Resistive
Capacitive
Inductive
Piezo-electric
Photoelectric
Photovoltaic cell, photodiode, photoconductor,
phototransistor
Electromagnetic
Ultrasonic
Thermal
thermal expansion, thermochemical, thermoelectric,
thermographic
Optical
Mechanical
Galvanic cell
 Transducers
Electronic
One form of energy is electrical
Commonest type
Output
input electrical/output another form
Speakers, motors, bulbs etc.
Input
Input another form/output electrical
Microphones, generators, photo cells, pressure
transducers etc.
Passive - no external power needed
Active need external power to work
 Simple electronics
Direct current
Ohms law
The current flowing through a
conductor is proportional to the
electromotive force (e.m.f.) causing
that current.

E/I = R
E = IR
I = E/R
 Resistance
In series : R = R + R
In parallel : 1/R = 1/R + 1/R

Power : 1 J of work in 1 s = 1 W
W = EI
W = E/R
W = IR
 Alternating current
Faradays Law
When the flux-linkage between a coil & a
magnetic field is varying, an e.m.f. proportional to
the rate of change of flux-linkage is induced in
the coil.

I = I sin
max

E = E sin
max

Root mean squared (r.m.s.) current

r.m.s. voltage
50 Hz, +/_ 339V (r.m.s 240 V)
 Capacitance
Unit - Farad
E = Q/C
During discharge of a capacitor
I/I = e

a.c. circuit
Current 90 out of phase to Voltage
Current with frequency
resistance changes with frequency = reactance
Reactance - Xc = 1/2fC ohms
Overall opposition impedance (R + Reactance)
 Inductance
Unit
henry (H)
When the current through a coil
changes at the rate of 1 A s, a 1 H
coil will induce a back-e.m.f. of 1 V.
V/E =
X =2
L

Inductance + capacitance + resistance

fr = resonant frequency
Passive band-pass filter
Selective band-reject filter
 Mutual inductance
Flux linkage between two coils due to
a flow of current through one
 Bridge circuits
Wheatstone bridge
When RA:RB = RC:RD
Px = Py
 Transducers
Colorimeters
Selenium photocell
Generates a current proportional to the
light intensity
Cadmium sulphide resister
Resistance varies with light intensity
changing the current flowing in the
circuit
 Spectrophotometers
Phototube
A vacuum tube
Cathode emits electrons in proportion to the
light intensity
Electrons are collected by the anode
Small signal (current) generated & amplified

Photomultiplier
Photocells which have several stages of
internal amplification
 Infrared spectroscopy
Thermal detectors
Change in temperature measured with a
Thermopile
A number of thermocouples connected in series
Or
Golay cell
Pneumatic device
Similar in principle to the Luft analyser
 Fluorescence
Atomic absorption
spectrophotometry
Flame photometry
Magnetic resonance
Electron spin resonance (ESR)
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
 Ultrasound
Transducers are made from materials displaying
piezo-electric effect
Most from ceramic materials containing lead
zirconate & lead titanate
Transforms mechanical to electrical energy & vice
versa
US is generated by applying a high frequency
alternating potential difference to the two sides of the
transducer which changes its thickness & produces the
US radiation of the same frequency as the applied
voltage
Thickness determines the operating frequency & must
be matched to the alternating voltage which excites it
Magnetorestrictive transducers less efficient
 Doppler instrument
Separate transmitting & receiving
crystals mounted side by side in a
hand-held probe
 Nuclear radiology

Scintillation
detector
Lead collimator determines size of field
Crystal produces a flash of light when
radiation ( is received
Photomultiplier converts light flash
to an electrical signal
Amplifier
Pulse height selector
Register or CRT display
 Pressure transducers
Diaphragm gauge
Methods of sensing diaphragm
movement
1. Direct
2. Optical
3. Electromechanical
Electromechanical transducer
Often called - electromanometer
 1. Direct
A thread or lever is attached to
diaphragm
Other end connected to a pointer or
writing arm
Marked inertia
Not very sensitive
 2. Optical
Mirror attached to diaphragm
Recorded on a photographic paper
Sensitivity can be increased by making
light reflect between mirrors on its way
to recorder
 Advantages of electromechanical
transducers
Electrical output may be processed in
many different ways
Amplified to sensitivity of instrument
Differentiated to give rate of change of
pressure
Digitalized to facilitate subsequent
processing by a digital computer
Yielding signals which are suitable for
Recording / display
 Physical principles of
electromechanical transducers
Displacement transducer
Force transducer
Senses force/unit area
Relationship between applied pressure &
movement of diaphragm is governed by
Stiffness of diaphragm
A relatively stiff diaphragm is necessary
To maintain a linear response
As frequency response is intimately related to
stiffness
 Methods for sensing diaphragm
movement
Optical
Optical defocussing manometer
Movement of diaphragm is sensed by
reflecting a beam of light off the silvered
back of diaphragm on to a photoelectric cell.
Exploited successfully for intra
vascular/cardiac pressure measurement
using a fibreoptic bundle
Has a high frequency response & completely
eliminates risk of microshock
 Wire strain gauge
When
a wire is stretched or
compressed it undergoes a change of
electrical resistance due to changes
in length, diameter & atomic
structure of the metal

Output V change in P
Typically 150VkPa20VmmHg) @ 10 V
excitation
 Wire strain gauge contd.

Unbonded wire strain gauge

Difference in R between two sets of R wires is
measured by a Wheatstone bridge system
Bonded strain gauge
More robust
Subjected to hysteresis
Often an inferior frequency response
Effect of temperature countered by
Metals with low temperature co-efficient of R
Using two gauges of equal dimensions on either
side of diaphragm (half bridge)
Full bridge circuit sensitivity doubled
 Silicon strain gauge
Silicon bonded strain gauge
doping with elements + ve or ve change in
R
About 50 times more sensitive but very T
sensitive & tend to suffer from non-linearity
Silicon diaphragm
High sensitivity
Very stiff diaphragm & high natural frequency
Very small & can be incorporated in cardiac
catheters
T compensated
 Capacitance
Diaphragm as one plate & the other
being fixed
Change in distance between plates
alter the charge that can be carried
This is sensed by a bridge circuit
Very sensitive with a high frequency
response
But affected by T (renders unreliable)
 Inductance
Variable inductance transducer
Inductance of the coil is measured by
making it part of a bridge circuit
energized by an a.c.
Differential transformer transducer
Generation of voltage output & its phase
is dependent on the relationship of the
core to the 2 secondary coils
Phase sensitive rectifier converts a.c.
signal to d.c.
Single ended & differential pressure
transducers
Single ended
Measure P on one side (atmospheric P on
the other side)
Differential transducer
Measures difference between two
pressures
Most between two gases (pneumotachograph)
Some between a gas & a liquid (transmural P)
To compare two liquids 2 matched single
ended transducers
Direct Measurement of intravascular
pressure - electromanometers
Catheter tip transducers
f up to 25 40 kHz
Very accurate but expensive
Used when high f response is essential
 Fluid-filled catheter system
For routine use
oscillating system
Fluid & mass of diaphragm oscillating mass
Compliance of diaphragm, tubing & air bubbles spring
P waveform complex
Fourier analysis
All complex waves constitute of a mixture of simple sine waves of varying
amplitude, f & phase a fundamental wave (@pulse f) & a series of
harmonics
Lower harmonics greatest amplitude
For reasonable accuracy fundamental & 1 st 8 -10
harmonics
For 70 beats/min 11.7 HZ
For extremely accurate recordings (dp/dtmax) a higher f
response
Sharper the waveform the greater the no of harmonics &
higher must be the f response
Physical conditions needed to be satisfied for
accurate recording of pressure & waveform

Able to accurately reproduce

Amplitude
Phase difference of
Each harmonic

Needs a system with

High undamped natural f (f) or resonant f
Correct amount of damplng
Frequency response refer recorders

Undamped
f- should be >fsencountered
f =
S = stiffness
Reciprocal of S = compliance (volume
displacement/unit p)
M = mass (complex)
e = 1/2
Effective mass actual mass
Damping due to friction(R); R =
Undamped f is highest when v of fluid
minimized
Stiff diaphragm & short, wide & rigid catheter
 If f is close to measured fs
Exaggerated amplitude
If f is < measured fs
Attenuated amplitude
If f is > measured fs
No amplitude distortion
Determination of f & damping refer recorders

Damping
Dissipation of energy in an oscillating
system
D = 0.64 best compromise
between speed of response &
accuracy of registration of
amplitude
 Phase shift - refer recorders

Inertia t delay on recorded signal

Should be equal to all components
So that phase relationship is maintained
Only possible if phase lag f (occurs when D
= 0.64)
Phase lag a function of
f
Damplng
Delay in waveform - important only in
special situations
 Practical considerations
Standard
p transducer - f HZ
Considerable with addition of catheter, tap & art
canula
To prevent in f & in damping
Avoid air bubbles
Use stiff & wide catheters
Prevent clot formation &
Use widest bore cannulae & taps
All prevent v &effective mass

Display/recording system f response must be

that of transducer system
 Adjustment of damping
Hydrostatically
By adding
A constriction in line
An air bubble (accudynamic/intraflo device)
A compliant tube
Electrically
f selective circuits
Importance when f
Choice of apparatus for intravascular
pressure measurement
A high f response & a sensitive system
Mutually incompatible ()
a compromise should be struck
Venous p
Needs high sensitivity but high f capability
Art p
Lesser sensitivity but a higher f capability
Gauge aligned with R atrium
Zero & gain of transducer-amplifier-recorder
system checked regularly &
adjusted/calibrated if necessary
Thank you