Level 1 Basics of Electricals Master

BOBCAT SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM
Basic of Electrical
Training
1
BASICS OF ELECTRICALS
Introduction
Electron Theory
Conductors, Insulators &
Semiconductors
Electric Charges
Current
Voltage
Resistance
2
Ohms Law
DC Series Circuit
DC Parallel Circuit
Series-Parallel Circuits
Power
Magnetism
Electromagnetism
Simple Electric Circuit
3
Introduction
Explain the difference between conductors and insulators
Use Ohms Law to calculate current, voltage, and resistance
Calculate equivalent resistance for series, parallel, series-parallel
circuits
Calculate voltage drop across a resistor
Calculate power given other basic values
Identify factors that determine the strength and polarity of a
current carrying coils magnetic field
Determine peak, instantaneous, and effective values of an AC sine
wave
Identify factors that affect inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance in an AC circuit
Calculate total impedance of an AC circuit
Explain the difference between real power and apparent power in
an AC circuit
4
Basics
What is
The flow of electrons from atom to
atom in a conductor
Electricity is based on a theory- an

unseen force because electrical
energy itself cannot be seen,heard,
touched, or smelled
5
Effects Of
Electricity
6
Basics
ELECTRICITY: It is flow of electrons from one point

to another
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL:Potential at a point in

an electric field is the amount of work done to bring
a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. It is
expressed in volts. It determines the direction of flow
of electricity when a body is placed in electrical
contact with the other charged body.
ELECTRIC CURRENT:Consists of electric charges

moving in a definite direction. It is measured in
amperes. Current (I) = Charge (Q)
time (t)
7
Basics
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: Potential difference

between (A & B) in an electric field is the work done
in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to
another.
Thus VA-VB = WBA
Q
Where WBA is work done bringing a positive charge
Q (+Q) from B to A.
VOLT: Unit of potential difference

1V = 1J X1C
8
Basics
DIRECTION OF FLOW OF ELECTRIC CURRENT: It is

taken as the direction of flow of positive charge.
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT: If the current flows from
positive to negative or from higher potential to
lower potential it is called conventional current
UNITS OF CURRENT: It is expressed in amperes
AMPERE: It is the rate of flow of one
coulomb of charge (1c) per
second.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb
1 sec 1A=
1CS-1
1 micro ampere (uA) =10 - 6 9
Basics
ELECTRIC FIELD:
It is the region of space around and electric
charge where in the influence of electric charge
can be felt.
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:
It is an arrangement to obtain electric current in
a conductor by connecting it to some source of
electric current (e.g. battery).
+
+ A
- -
10
Basics
AMMETER: is an instrument that is used to measure

current flowing through a circuit. It is always
connected in series in the circuit. The current
enters the + tive terminal of the ammeter and
comes out of the - tive terminal
VOLT METER: Is a instrument that is used to

measure the potential difference. It is always
connected in parallel to the source of e.m.f. across
which the potential difference is to measured. Its
positive terminal is connected to a point at
higher potential and negative terminal to a lower
potential. 11
Electron Theory
Elements of an atom
All matter is composed of molecules which are made up
of a combination of atoms.
Atoms have a nucleus with electrons orbiting around it.
The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons (not
shown).
Most atoms have an equal number of electrons and
protons
Electrons have a negative charge (-), Protons have a
positive charge (+) and Neutrons are neutral.
The negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the
positive charge of the protons.
Electrons are bound in their orbit by the attraction of
the protons. These are referred to as bound electrons.
12
Electron Theory
Elements of an atom
13
Electron Theory
Free Electrons
Electrons in the outer band can become free of their

orbit by the application of some external force such
as movement through a magnetic field, friction, or
chemical action.
These are referred to as free electrons.
A free electron leaves a void which can be filled by
an electron forced out of orbit from another atom.
As free electrons move from one atom to the next an
electron flow is produced
This is the basis of electricity.
14
Electron Theory
Free Electrons
15
Electron Theory
Free Electrons
An atom design is similar to a
miniature solar system. As the
sun is to the solar system, the
nucleus is to the atom.
Protons [the positive [+]
charge of the atom] and the
neutrons [no electrical charge]
are located in the nucleus.
Electrons [the negative [-]
charge] however are located in
an outer ring or orbit called a
valance which encircle around
the nucleus similar to the earth
moving around the sun.
Valances have a gravitational
like pull which keep the
electrons suspended in their 16
Electron Theory
Free Electrons
Electrons [shown in
yellow] are what we are
most interested in when
thinking of electricity.
Understanding these
atomic structures and
actions will help us
understand how electricity
works.
Electrons
Since electrons are lighter
than protons and are
outside the nucleus, they
can be easily moved from
atom to atom. 17
Electron Theory
Free Electrons
Electrons rotate around the
nucleus at different orbits or
valance rings.
Bound Electrons have a strong
magnetic attraction to the
nucleus. As the valance ring
becomes full they have a
stronger attraction.
Free Electrons are in the outer
most valance ring and are easily
Electron Orbits dislodged from their orbit
causing them to move on
command. The ability to move
these electrons from atom to
atom on command to do work 18 is
Electron Theory
Free Electrons
+ -
Battery
The ability to move electrons on command from one atom to the next
to produce electricity.
To have electron flow we MUST have a complete circuit or path for
the energy to flow through.
To have electron flow we MUST have Potential Difference [unequal
charges at each end of the circuit].
YOU CAN NOT CREATE OR DESTROY ELECTRICITY YOU ONLY
MOVE IT !!! 19
Conductors, Insulators & Semi
ConductorsConductors
An electric current is produced when free electrons
move
from one atom to the next.
Materials that permit many electrons to move freely
are called conductors.
Copper, silver, aluminum, zinc, brass, and iron are
considered good conductors.
Copper is the most common material used for
conductors
and is relatively inexpensive.
20
A conductor is any material that

easily allows electrons [Electricity] to
flow.
A conductor has 1 to 3 Free
Electrons in their outer valance.
Because the electrons are held
loosely to the nucleus they can be
easily dislodged to move to another
HOW DO atom and have the ability to readily
Conductors Work ? except an electron from another
atom.
Copper and Aluminum are the two
most common types of conductors
21
negative positive
A conductor can be thought of as a chain of

atoms.
It is possible to produce movement of atoms
by adding atoms to one side or subtracting
from the other.
22
Conductors Insulators
An Insulator is any material that
inhibits [stops] the flow of
electrons [Electricity].
5 or More
Electrons An insulator is any material with 5
or more Electrons in their outer
valance.
Because atoms with 5 or more
electrons in their outer valance
are held [bound] tightly to the
nucleus, they cannot be as easily
moved to another atom nor can
make room has easily for more
electrons.
Plastic and rubber are the more
common insulators seen in the
23
Materials that allow few free electrons are called
insulators.
Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass, mica, and
ceramic are good insulators.
24
An electric cable is one example of how conductors

and
insulators are used.
Electrons flow along a copper conductor to provide
energy to an electric device such as a radio, lamp,or
a motor.
An insulator around the outside of the copper
conductor is provided to keep electrons in the
conductor.
25
Conductors
Semiconductors
Any material with exactly 4
electrons in their outer valance
are called Semiconductors.
Semiconductors are neither
good conductors nor good
insulators.
Used to build transistors and
diodes in electronic circuits.
HOW DO Solid State [no moving parts]
Semi Conductors Work ?
Germanium and silicon are two
materials used in the making of
these components.
26
Semiconductor materials, suchConductors
as silicon, can be
Semiconductors
used to
manufacture devices that have characteristics of
both
conductors and insulators.
Many semiconductor devices will act like a
conductor when an external force is applied in one
direction.
When the external force is applied in the opposite
direction, the semiconductor device will act like an
insulator.
This principle is the basis for transistors, diodes,
and other solid-state electronic device.
Transistor Diode
27
Study
Review
Basic
REVIEW - 1: Principles
1. List the three basic elements of an atom and

state
the charge of each (positive, negative, or neutral).
Element Charge
____________ ____________
____________ ____________
____________ ____________
2. An electron forced out of orbit by an external
force is
called a ____________ ____________ .
3. Conductors allow ____________ free electrons to
flow
when an external electric force is applied. 28
Study
Review
Basic
4. Which of the following materials are good

conductors?
a. copper e.
aluminum
b. plastic f. glass
c. silver g. iron
d. rubber h. mica
5. Semiconductor devices can be manufactured to
allow ____________ electrons to flow in one direction
and ____________ electrons to flow in the opposite
direction.
29
Answers You Were Looking For
Study
REVIEW - 1: Review
1) electron (-), proton (+), neutron (neutral);
2) free electrons;
3) many;
4) a, c, e, g;
5) many, few.
30
Electric
Neutral State
Charges
Of An
Atom
Outer Band
Elements are often identified by the number of

electrons in orbit around the nucleus of the atoms
making up the element and by the number of
protons in the nucleus.
A hydrogen atom, for example, has only one
electron and one proton.
An aluminum atom (illustrated) has 13 electrons
and 13 protons.
An atom with an equal number of electrons and
protons is said to be electrically neutral.
31
Electric
Equilibrium State
Charges
Of An
negative
Atom
positive
Atoms in a simple system seek equilibrium,

that is, they try to become neutral
If there is an atom with a negative charge close
to an atom with a positive charge, the atom
with a negative charge will give up electrons to
the atom with a positive charge
32
Electric
Positive & Negative
Charges
Charges
Electrons in the outer band of an atom are easily

displaced by
the application of some external force. Electrons which
are
forced out of their orbits can result in a lack of electrons
where they leave and an excess of electrons where they
come to rest.
The lack of electrons is called a positive charge because
there are more protons than electrons. The excess of
electrons has a negative charge.
A positive or negative charge is caused by an absence or
excess of electrons. The number of protons remains 33
constant.
Electric
Attraction & Repulsion ofCharges
Electric
Charges
The old saying, opposites attract, is true when
dealing with
electric charges.
Charged bodies have an invisible electric field around
them.
When two like-charged bodies are brought together,
their electric field will work to repel them.
When two unlike-charged bodies are brought together,
their
electric field will work to attract them. The electric
field around a charged body is represented by invisible
lines of force.
The invisible lines of force represent an invisible
electrical
field that causes the attraction and repulsion.
Lines of force are shown leaving a body with a positive
charge and entering a body with a negative charge.
34
Electric
Attraction & Repulsion of
Charges
Electric
Charges
Unlike Charges Attract Like Charges Repel
35
Electric
Coulombs
Charges
Law
During the 18th century a French scientist, Charles
A.
Coulomb, studied fields of force that surround
charged
bodies.
Coulomb discovered that charged bodies attract or
repel each other with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of the charges, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Today we call this Coulomb's Law of Charges.
Simply put, the force of attraction or repulsion
depends on the strength of the charged bodies, and
the distance between them.
36
Current
Electricity is the flow of free electrons in a conductor

from
one atom to the next atom in the same general
direction.
This flow of electrons is referred to as current and is
designated by the symbol I.
Electrons move through a conductor at different
rates and electric current has different values.
Current is determined by the number of electrons
that pass
through a cross-section of a conductor in one
second. We
must remember that atoms are very small.
It takes about 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 37
Principles Of
Curren
Current
t
This number can be simplified using mathematical
exponents. Instead of writing 24 zeros after the
number 1, write 1024. Trying to measure even small
values of current would result in unimaginably
large numbers.
For this reason current is measured in amperes
which is abbreviated amps.
The symbol for amps is the letter A.
A current of one amp means that in one second
about 6.24 x 1018 electrons move through a cross-
section of conductor.
These numbers are given for information only and
you do not need to be concerned with them.
It is important, however, that the concept of
current flow be understood.
38
Principles Of
Unit Of Measurement
Current For
Current
The following chart reflects special prefixes that are us

when dealing with very small or large values of curren
Prefix Symbol Decimal
1 kiloampere 1 kA 1000 A
1 milliampere 1 mA 1/1000 A
1 microampere 1 mA 1/1,000,000
39
Curren
Direction Of Current
t
Flow
Some authorities distinguish between electron flow

and
current flow.
Conventional current flow theory ignores the flow of
electrons and states that current flows from positive
to negative.
To avoid confusion, this book will use the electron
flow concept which states that electrons flow from
negative to positive.
40
Voltag
Electricity can be compared with water flowing
Definition Of
e
through a
Voltage
pipe.
A force is required to get water to flow through a
pipe.
This force comes from either a water pump or
gravity.
Voltage is the force that is applied to a conductor
that
causes electric current to flow.
41
Voltag
Definition Of
e
Voltage
Electrons are negative and are attracted by positive
charges.
They will always be attracted from a source having
an excess
of electrons, thus having a negative charge, to a
source
having a deficiency of electrons which has a positive
charge.
The force required to make electricity flow through a
conductor is called a difference in potential,
electromotive force (emf), or more simply referred to
as voltage.
Voltage is designated by the letter E, or the letter
V.
The unit of measurement for voltage is volts which is
designated by the letter V.
42
Voltag
Voltage
e
An electrical voltage can be generated in Sources
various
ways.
A battery uses an electrochemical process. A cars
alternator and a power plant generator utilizes a
magnetic induction process.
All voltage sources share the characteristic of an
excess of electrons at one terminal and a shortage
at the other terminal.
This results in a difference of potential between the
two terminals.
43
Voltag
Voltage Circuit Symbol & e
Measurement
The terminals of a battery are indicated symbolically on
electrical drawing by two lines. The longer line indicate
positive terminal. The shorter line indicates the negativ
terminal.
The following chart reflects special prefixes that are

used
when dealing with very small or large values of
voltage:
Prefix Symbol
Decimal
1 kilovolt 1 kV 1000
V
1 millivolt 1 mV
1/1000 V 44
Resistanc
Resistance Circuit Symbol &
e
Measurement
A third factor that plays a role in an electrical circuit is
resistance.
All material impedes the flow of electrical current to
some extent.
The amount of resistance depends upon composition,
length, cross-section and temperature of the resistive
material.
As a rule of thumb, resistance of a conductor
increases with an increase of length or a decrease of
cross-section.
Resistance is designated by the symbol R.
The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms ().
45
Resistanc
e
Measurement
Resistance is usually indicated symbolically on an
electrical
drawing by one of two ways.
An unfilled rectangle is commonly used.
A zigzag line may also be used.
46
Resistanc
e
Measurement
Resistance can be in the form of various components.
A resistor may be placed in the circuit, or the circuit mig
contain other devices that have resistance.
The following chart reflects special prefixes that are

commonly used when dealing with values of resistance
Prefix Symbol Decima
1 kilohm 1 k 1000
1 megohm 1 M 1,000,0
47
Summar
Resistance, Current & Voltage Symbol y&
Measurement
Voltage is pressure or the push that

causes current flow
Current is the flow of the electrons
Resistance is the opposition

to current flow
48
Summar
Measurement
Voltage is the electrical force that moves electrons through
a conductor. Voltage is electrical pressure also know as
Electro Motive Force (EMF) that pushes electrons.
The greater the potential difference (the difference between
positive and negative), the greater the voltage force
potential.
49
Summar
Measurement
A VOLTMETER measures the

voltage potential across or parallel
to the circuit.
The Voltmeter measures the
amount of electrical pressure
difference between two points
being measured.
Voltage can exist between two
points without electron flow.
50
Summar
Measurement
CURRENT is the quantity or flow rate of electrons moving
past a point within one second. Current flow is also known
as amperage, or amps for short.
Higher voltage will produce higher current flow and lower
voltage will produce lower current flow.
51
Summar
Measurement
An AMMETER measures the quantity of current flow.
Ammeters are placed in series (inline) to count the
electrons passing through it.
Example: A water meter counts the gallons of water flowing
through it.
52
Summar
Measurement
RESISTANCE is a measure of the opposition to current
flow. It opposes voltage.
Higher resistance will decrease the flow of electrons, and
lower resistance will allow more electrons to flow.
53
Summar
Measurement
An OHMMETER measures the
resistance of an electrical
circuit or component. No
voltage can be applied while the
ohmmeter is connected or
damage to the meter will occur.
Also all parallel circuits must be
disconnected and keep fingers
off of probes.
Example: Water flows through a
garden hose and someone steps
on the hose. The greater the
pressure placed on the hose,
the greater the hose restriction
and the less water flows. 54
Summar
Measurement
Various factors can affect the resistance:
LENGTH of the conductor. The longer the
conductor, the higher the resistance.
DIAMETER of the conductor. The narrower the
conductor, the higher the resistance.
TEMERATURE of the material. Depending on the
material, most will increase resistance as
temperature increases.
PHYSICAL CONDITION (damage) to the material.
Any damage will increase resistance.
TYPE of MATERIAL used. Various materials have a
55
Study
Review
Basic
1. Elements are identified by the number of

____________ in orbit around the nucleus.
2. A material that has an excess of electrons is said

to have a ____________ charge.
3. A material that has a deficiency of electrons is

said
to have a ____________ charge.
4. Like charges ____________ and unlike charges

____________ . 56
Study
Review
Basic
5. The force that is applied to a conductor to cause

current flow is ____________ .
6. Electrons move from:

a. positive to negative
b. negative to positive
7. With an increase of length or a decrease of

cross-section of a conductor, resistance will
a. increase
b. decrease
57
Study
REVIEW - 2: Review
1) electrons; 2)
negative;
3) positive; 4) repel,
attract;
5) voltage; 6) b;
7) a;
58
Summar
Effect Of Resistance, Current
y &
Voltage
Two common effects of current flow are HEAT
GENERATION and ELECTROMAGNETISM
HEAT: When current flows, heat will be
generated. The higher the current flow the
greater the heat generated. An example would
be a light bulb. If enough current flows across
the filament, it will glow white hot and
illuminate (light).
ELECTROMAGNETISM: When current flows, a
small magnetic field is created. The higher the
current flow, the stronger the magnetic field.
An example: Electromagnetism principles are
used in alternators, ignition systems, and other
59
Simple electrical
An Electric
Circuit
Circuit
A fundamental relationship exists between current,
voltage,
and resistance.
A simple electric circuit consists of a voltage source,
some type of load, and a conductor to allow electrons
to flow between the voltage source and the load.
60
Simple Electrical
An Electric
Circuit
Circuit
In the above circuit a battery provides the voltage

source, electrical wire is used for the conductor, and a
light provides the resistance.
An additional component has been added to this
circuit, a switch. There must be a complete path for
current to flow.
If the switch is open, the path is incomplete and the
light will not illuminate.
Closing the switch completes the path, allowing
electrons to leave the negative terminal and flow
through the light to the positive terminal.
61
Simple Electrical
An Electrical
The following schematic is a representation Circuit
Circuitof an
electrical Schematic
circuit, consisting of a battery, a resistor, a voltmeter
and an
ammeter.
The ammeter, connected in series with the circuit, will
show how much current flows in the circuit.
The voltmeter, connected across the voltage source,
will show the value of voltage supplied from the
battery.
Before an analysis can be made of a circuit, we need
to understand Ohms Law.
62
Basics
OHM :
It is the resistance of a conductor when a

current of 1 amperes flow through it on
applying a potential difference of 1 volt
across its two ends.
63
Ohms Law
Ohms Law George Simon
Ohm
The relationship between current, voltage and
resistance
was studied by the 19th century German
mathematician,
George Simon Ohm.
Ohm formulated a law which states that current
varies directly with voltage and inversely with
resistance.
From this law the following formula is derived:
I = E
R
or Current = Voltage
Resistance
64
Basics
OHMS LAW : It states , The current passing

through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, if the
temperature and other physical conditions remain
unaltered.
Mathematically it can be stated as

V
R = I
V
I = R
V = I.R 65
Ohms Law
George Simon
Ohm
Volts, amperes and ohms are

related by Ohms Law which says:
1 volt (force) is required to move 1
ampere (number of electrons per
second) through a resistance of 1
ohm
In other words:
VOLTS =AMPS X OHMS
66
Ohms Law is the basic formula used in allOhms Law
electrical
circuits. Definition Of Ohms Law
Electrical designers must decide how much voltage
is
needed for a given load, such as computers, clocks,
lamps and motors.
Decisions must be made concerning the relationship
of current, voltage and resistance.
ALL ELECTRICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS BEGINS WITH
OHMS LAW
There are three mathematical ways to express Ohms
Law.
Which of the formulas is used depends on what facts
are known before starting and what facts need to be
known.
I = E , E = I x R , R =
E
R 67
Basics
RESISTANCE (R) : It is the property of a material

which opposes the flow of current. It is equal to the
ratio of potential difference and the current.
I R
It is measured in ohms
68
Ohms Law
Ohms
There is an easy way to remember which Law to
formula
use. Triangle
By arranging current, voltage and resistance in a
triangle, one can quickly determine the correct
formula.
To use the triangle, cover the value you want to
calculate.
The remaining letters make up the formula .
Ohm Triangle
69
Ohms Law
Using The Triangle
Ohms Law can only give the correct answer when the co
values are used.
Remember the following three rules:
Current is always expressed in Amperes or Amps
Voltage is always expressed in Volts
Resistance is always expressed in Ohms
70
Ohms Law
Examples Of Solving Ohms
Law
Using the simple circuit above, assuming that the

voltage supplied by the battery is 10 volts, and the
resistance is 5 .
To find how much current is flowing through the

circuit, cover
the I in the triangle and use the resulting equation:
I = E I = 10 volts I = 5 Amps
R 5 71
Ohms Law
MIXED ARRANGEMENT: In such an arrangement

some of the resistance are fixed in series and
then these are arranged in parallels.
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY: It is the

resistance of a conductor made of a conductor
made of that material of unit length and unit
cross-section
72
Ohms Law
Law
Using the simple circuit above, assuming that the

voltage supplied by the battery is 10 volts, and the
resistance is 5 .
To find how much current is flowing through the

circuit, cover
the I in the triangle and use the resulting equation:
I = E I = 10 volts I = 5 Amps
R 5 73
Ohms Law
Using the same circuit, assume the ammeter
Law reads
200 mA
and the resistance is known to be 10 .
To solve for voltage, cover the E in the triangle
and use the resulting equation.
E=IxR E = 0.2 x 10 E = 2
volts
Remember to use the correct decimal equivalent

when dealing with numbers that are preceded with
milli (m), micro (m) or kilo (k). In this example had
200 been used instead of converting the value to 0 .
2, the wrong answer of 2000 volts would have been
calculated.
74
D C Series
Resistance
A series circuit is formed when InCircuit
any number A of
Series
resistors are Circuit
connected end-to-end so that there is only one path
for
current to flow.
The resistors can be actual resistors or other devices
that have resistance.
The illustration shows four resistors connected end-
to-end.
There is one path of current flow from the negative
terminal of the battery through R4, R3, R2, R1
returning to the positive terminal.
75
Ohms Law
RESISTANCE IN SERIES: In this type of arrangement

the conductors are connected end to end in such a
way that the same current passes through each
conductor. For such an arrangement the total
resistance (R) is equal the sum of various
resistance (R1, R2, R3) connected in series.
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..
R1 R2 R3
A B
76
D C Series
Formula ForCircuit
Series
Resistance
The values of resistance add in a series circuit. If a 4

resistor is placed in series with a 6 resistor, the
total value will be 10 . This is true when other types
of resistive devices are placed in series.
The mathematical formula for resistance in series is:
RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4
77
D C Series
Example ForCircuit
Series
Resistance
Given a series circuit where R1 is 11 k , R2 is 2 k , R3
is 2 k , R4 is 100 , and R5 is 1 k , what is the total
resistance ?
R T = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 + R 5
RT = 11000 + 2000 + 2000 + 100 + 1000

Or --- RT = 16,100
78
D C Series
Current In Circuit
A Series
Circuit
I = E ,
R
I = 10
volts
5
I = 5 Amps
The equation for total resistance in a series circuit

allows us
to simplify a circuit.
Using Ohms Law, the value of current can be
calculated.
Current is the same anywhere it is measured in a
series circuit.
79
D C Series
Voltage In Circuit
A Series
Circuit
80
D C Series
Kirchhoffs
Circuit
Law
Voltage can be measured across each of the resistors

in a
circuit. The voltage across a resistor is referred to as a
voltage drop.
A German physicist, Kirchhoff, formulated a law which
states that the sum of the voltage drops across the
resistances of a closed circuit equals the total voltage
applied to the circuit.
In the above illustration, four equal value resistors of
1.5 each have been placed in series with a 12 volt
battery.
Ohms Law can be applied to show that each resistor
will drop an equal amount of voltage. 81
D C Series
Kirchhoffs
Circuit
Law
First solve for total resistance:
RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 + R5
RT = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 6
Second solve for current: I = E , I = 12 volts , I =

2 Amp
R 6
Third solve for voltage across any resistor:
V = I x R , V = 2 x 1.5 = 3 volts
82
D C Series
Kirchhoffs
Circuit
Law
If voltage were measured across any single resistor,

the
meter would read three volts.
If voltage were read across a combination of R3 and
R4 the meter would read six volts.
If voltage were read across a combination of R2, R3,
and R4 the meter would read nine volts.
If the voltage drops of all four resistors were added
together the sum would be 12 volts, the original
supply voltage of the battery.
83
D C Series
Voltage Division - Series
Circuit
Circuit
It is often desirable to use a voltage potential that

is lower
than the supply voltage.
To do this, a voltage divider, similar to the one
illustrated, can be used.
The battery represents Ein which in this case is 50
volts.
84
D C Series
Voltage Division - Series
Circuit
Circuit
The desired voltage is represented by Eout which

mathematically works out to be 40 volts.
To calculate this voltage, first solve for total
resistance:
RT = R 1 + R 2 OR RT = 5 + 20 = 25
Second solve for total current:
I = Ein / RT OR I = 50/25 , I = 2 Amps
Finally solve for voltage:
EOUT = I x R2 OR EOUT = 2 x 20 , EOUT = 40 volts 85
Ohms Law
RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL: In this type of

arrangement various resistance are arranged in
such a way that one terminal of each conductor is
connected at one common point (A) and the other
terminal of each conductor is connected at another
common point (B), In such a case the resultant
resistance (R) is given by
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 R3
R R1 R2 R3
R2
R1
86
Study
Review
Basic
1. The basic Ohm's Law formula is ____________ .
2. When solving circuit problems; current must

always
be expressed in ____________ , voltage must always
be expressed in ____________ and resistance must
always be expressed in ____________ .
3. The total current of a simple circuit with a

voltage
supply of 12 volts and a resistance of 24 W is
_____amps.
87
Study
Review
Basic
5. What is total current of a series circuit that has
a 120
volt supply and 60 resistance?
6. In the following circuit the voltage dropped

across
R1 is ____________ volts and R2 is ____________
88
Study
Review
Basic
7. In the following circuit voltage dropped across
R1 is
____________ volts, and R2 is ____________ volts.
89
Study
REVIEW - 3: Review
1) I = E 2) amps,
volts, ohms;
R
3) 0.5 amps; 4) 45 ;
5) 2 amps; 6) 6 volts, 6
volts;
7) 20 volts, 80 volts;
90
D C Parallel
Resistance InCircuit
A Parallel
Circuit
Formula - Equal value resistors

RT =Value of any one resistor
Number of resistors
A parallel circuit is formed when two or more
resistances are placed in a circuit side-by-side so
that current can flow
through more than one path.
The illustration shows two resistors placed side-by-
side.
There are two paths of current flow.
One path is from the negative terminal of the battery
through R1 returning to the positive terminal.
The second path is from the negative terminal of the
battery through R2 returning to the positive terminal
of the battery. 91
D C Parallel
A Parallel
Circuit
In the following illustration there are three 15
resistors.
The total resistance is:
RT = Value of any one resistor ie. RT = 15 = 5
Number of resistors 3
92
D C Parallel
A Parallel
Circuit
Formula - 1
Unequal value resistors
There are two formulas to determine total resistance

for
unequal value resistors in a parallel circuit.
The first formula is used when there are three or more
resistors.
The formula can be extended for any number of
resistors.
In the following illustration there are three resistors,
each of different value.
The total resistance is: 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT R 1 R2 R 3 93
D C Parallel
A Parallel
Circuit
Formula - 1
Unequal value resistors
94
D C Parallel
The second formula is used Resistance
when thereInare
A Parallel
Circuit
only two
resistors. Circuit
In the following illustration there are two resistors,
each of
different value.
The total resistance is: RT = R1 x R2 = 5 x 10 =
3.33
R1 + R2 5 + 10
Formula - 2
Unequal value
resistors
RT = R1 x R2
R1 + R 2
95
D C Parallel
Voltage In Circuit
A Parallel
Circuit
When resistors are placed in parallel across a

voltage source, the voltage is the same across each
resistor.
In the above illustration three resistors are placed
in parallel across a 12 volt battery.
Each resistor has 12 volts available to it.
96
D C Parallel
Current In Circuit
A Parallel
Circuit
Current flowing through a parallel circuit divides

and flows
through each branch of the circuit.
Total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum
of the
current in each branch.
The following formula applies to current in a parallel
circuit:
I T = I1 + I2 + I3
97
D C Parallel
Current In Circuit
A Parallel
Circuit
Formula
Equal value resistors
When equal resistances are placed in a parallel

circuit,
opposition to current flow is the same in each
branch.
In the above circuit R1 and R2 are of equal value.
If total current (It) is 10 amps, then 5 amps would
flow through R1 and 5 amps would flow through R2. 98
D C Parallel
Current In Circuit
A Parallel
Circuit
When unequal value resistors are placed in a parallel

circuit,
opposition to current flow is not the same in every
circuit branch.
Current is greater through the path of least
resistance.
In the above circuit R1 is 40 W and R2 is 20 W.
Small values of resistance means less opposition to
current flow. More current will flow through R2 than
99
D C Parallel
Current In Circuit
A Parallel
Circuit
Total current can also be calculated by first

calculating total resistance, then applying the
formula for Ohms Law.
Using Ohms Law :
R
Using Ohms Law :
T = R1 x R 2 = 40 x 20
IT = E

RT
R1 + R2 40 +
20
R
IT = 12 volts
T = 800 = 13.333
60 13.333
IT = 0.9 Amps
100
Study
Review
Basic
1. The total resistance of a parallel circuit that has
four
20 resistors is ____________ .
2. Rt for the following circuit is ____________ .
101
Study
Review
Basic
3. Rt for the following circuit is ____________ .
102
Study
Review
Basic
4. Voltage available at R2 in the following circuit is
____________ volts.
5. In a parallel circuit with two resistors of equal

value
and a total current flow of 12 amps, the value of
current through each resistor is ____________ amps.
103
Study
Review
Basic
6. In the following circuit current flow through R 1 is
____________ amps, and R2 is ____________ amps.
104
Study
REVIEW - 4: Review
1) 5 ; 2) 5.45 ;
3) 3.33 ; 4) 12 volts;
5) 6 amps; 6) 2.4 amps,

1.6 amps;
105
D C Series - Parallel
CircuitSimplifyin
g
Series-parallel circuits are also known as compound
circuits.
At least three resistors are required to form a series-
parallel
circuit.
The formulas required for solving current, voltage and
resistance problems have already been defined.
To solve a series-parallel circuit, reduce the compound
circuits to equivalent simple circuits. In the above
illustration R1 and R2 are parallel with each other. R3 is
in series with the parallel circuit of R 1 and R2 .
The following illustrations show two ways a series-
parallel
combination could be found.
106
CircuitSimplifyin
g
107
CircuitSimplifyin
g
R = Value of any one resisto
Number of resistors
R = 10 = 5
2
First, use the formula to determine total resistance of

a parallel circuit to find the total resistance of R 1 and
R2 .
When the resistors in a parallel circuit are equal, the
following formula is used: As mentioned above
108
CircuitSimplifyin
Second, redraw the circuit showing the equivalentg
values.
The result is a simple series circuit which uses already
learned equations and methods of problem solving as
shown below.
Let us take another example showing how we can

simplify a series-parallel circuit to a parallel circuit
109
CircuitSimplifyin
g
In the following illustration R1 and R2 are in series
with each other.
R3 is in parallel with the series circuit of R 1 and R2 .
First use the formula to determine total resistance of
a series circuit. To find the total resistance of
R1 and R2 following formula is used:
R = R1 + R2 ; R = 10 + 10 = 20
110
CircuitSimplifyin
Second, redraw the circuit showing the equivalentg
values.
The result is a simple parallel circuit which uses
already learned equations and methods of problem
solving as shown below.
111
Study
Review
Basic
1. Calculate equivalent resistance for R1 and R2 and
total resistance for the entire circuit.
R1 / R2 equivalent resistance = ____________
Total resistance = ____________

112
Study
Review
Basic
2. Calculate equivalent resistance for R1 and R2 and
total resistance for the entire circuit.
R1 / R2 equivalent resistance = ____________
Total resistance = ____________

113
Study
REVIEW - 5: Review
1) 12 , 22 ; 2) 40 ,
13.33 ;
114
Powe
r
Work
Whenever a force of any kind causes motion, work is

accomplished.
In the illustration above work is done when a
mechanical force is used to lift a weight.
If a force were exerted without causing motion, then
no work is done.
115
Powe
Electricr
Power
In an electrical circuit, voltage applied to a
conductor will
cause electrons to flow.
Voltage is the force and electron flow is the
motion. The rate at which work is done is called
power and is represented by the symbol P.
Power is measured in watts and is represented by
the symbol W.
The watt is defined as the rate work is done in a
circuit when 1 amp flows with 1 volt applied.
116
Powe
Electricr
Power
Power consumed in a resistor depends on the
amount of
current that passes through the resistor for a given
voltage.
This is expressed as voltage times current.
Power consumed in a resistor depends on the
amount of
current that passes through the resistor for a given
voltage.
This is expressed as voltage times current.
P = E x I ; OR P = E I
Power can also be calculated by substituting other
components of Ohms Law.
P = I2 x R , and P = E2
R
117
Powe
Electricr
Power
POWER (P) : Power is defined as the rate of doing w
W I2 R T
P= = Or I2 R
t t
Power is expressed in Watt or Kilowatt
KILOWATT-HOUR: It is a unit of electricity
1 KWH = 3.6 X 10 6
J.
118
Powe
Solving A Powerr
Problem
In the following illustration power can be calculated
using any of the power formulas.
P = E x I ie. P = 12volts x 2 Amp = 24 watts

OR: P = I2 x R ie. P = (2 Amps)2 x 6 = 24 watts
OR: P = E2 ie. P = (12 volts)2 = 144 = 24 watts
R 6 6
119
Powe
Power Rating Of r
Equipment
Electrical equipment is rated in watts.
This rating is an indication of the rate at which
electrical equipment converts electrical energy into
other forms of energy, such as heat or light.
A common household lamp may be rated for 120
volts and 100 watts.
Using Ohms Law, the rated value of resistance of
the lamp can be calculated.
P = E2 ie. this can be transposed to : R = E2
R P
OR: R = (120 volts)2 = 144
100 watts
Using the basic Ohms Law formula, the amount of
current flow for the 120 volt, 100 watt lamp can be
calculated.
I = E , OR: 120 volts , OR: I = 0.833 Amps
R 144 120
Powe
Power Rating Of r
Equipment
Let us solve another example to calculate power :
A lamp has rated for 120 volts and 75 watts has a
resistance of 192 W and a current of .625 amps
would flow if the lamp had the rated voltage applied
to it.
P = E2 ie. this can be transposed to : R = E2
R P
OR: R = (120 volts)2 = 192
75 watts
Using the basic Ohms Law formula, the amount of
current flow for the 120 volt, 75 watt lamp can be
calculated.
I = E , OR: 120 volts , OR: I = 0.625 Amps
R 192
It can be seen that the 100 watt lamp converts
energy faster than the 75 watt lamp. The 100 watt
lamp will give off more light and heat. 121
Powe
r
Heat
HEAT PRODUCED BY AN ELECTRIC CURRENT:
The amount of heat produced when an electric curr

passes through a resistance (R) is given by
H = I 2. R . t
Where R = resistance of the circuit
t = time
I = current flowing through the circuit
H= heat produced
122
Powe
r
Heat
Current flow through a resistive material

causes heat.
An electrical component can be damaged
if the temperature is too high.
For this reason, electrical equipment is
often rated for a maximum wattage.
The higher the wattage rating, the more
heat the equipment can dissipate.
123
Magnetis
Type Of
m
Magnets
The principles of magnetism are an integral part of
electricity.
Electromagnets are used in some direct current
circuits.
Alternating current cannot be understood without
first understanding magnetism.
The three most common forms of magnets are the
horseshoe, bar and compass needle.
124
Magnetis
Magnetic Lines
m Of
Flux
Every magnet has two poles, one north pole and one
south
pole.
This is the point at which maximum attraction
occurs.
Invisible magnetic lines of flux leave the north pole
and enter the south pole.
While the lines of flux are invisible, the effects of
magnetic fields can be made visible.
When a sheet of paper is placed on a magnet and
iron filings loosely scattered over it, the filings will
arrange themselves along the invisible lines of flux.
125
Magnetis
Characteristics m
Of
Magnets
All magnets have two characteristics.
They attract and hold iron.
If free to move, like the compass needle, the
magnet will
assume roughly a north-south position.
126
Magnetis
Characteristics m
Of
Magnets
By drawing lines the way the iron filings have
arranged themselves, the following picture is
obtained.
Broken lines indicate the paths of magnetic flux

lines. The
field lines exist outside and inside the magnet.
The magnetic lines of flux always form closed loops.
Magnetic lines of flux leave the north pole and enter
the south pole, returning to the north pole through
the magnet.
127
Magnetis
Interaction Between Two
m
When two magnets are brought together, the
Magnets
magnetic flux
field around the magnet causes some form of
interaction.
Two unlike poles brought together cause the
magnets to
attract each other.
128
Magnetis
Interaction Between Two
m
Magnets
Two like poles brought together cause the magnets
to repel each other.
129
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Principles
An electromagnetic field is a magnetic field

generated by current flow in a conductor.
Whenever current flows a magnetic field
exists around the conductor.
Every electric current generates a magnetic
field.
A definite relationship exists between the
direction of current flow and the direction
of the magnetic field.
130
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Principles
CONDUCTOR: Those materials that offer

negligible resistance to flow of current are
called conductors for E.g. copper , silver and
aluminium
INSULATORS: Those materials that do not allow

any electric current to flow through themselves
are called insulators.
E.g. wood , stone and plastic
131
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Principles
ELECTROMAGNETISM: It is the magnetisim that is
produced by the effect of electricity. The direction
of magnetic field produced in such cases can be
found by using any one of the following rules
(1) MAXWELLS CORK SCREW RULE: If we place a

right hand screw in the direction of the current
and rotate the screw in such a way that it
advances in the direction of the flow current. The
direction of rotation of thumb gives the direction
of current Direction of
Direction of Current
Magnetic line of force
132
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Principles
RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE: To find the direction of
magnetic lines of force, hold the current carrying
conductor in the right hand in such a way that the
thumb points in the direction of flow of current,
the fingers will then give the direction of magnetic
lines of force
133
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CIRCULAR CURRENT Principles
CARRYING CONDUCTOR: The magnetic lines of
force near the surface of a conductor are
circular. At the centre, the lines of force are
straight and are perpendicular to the plane of
the conductor
S.I. UNITS OF MAGNETIC FIELD: The S.I Unit of

magnetic field is Tesla (T) and the C.G.S unit is
Gauss or Oersted.
1 Gauss = 10-4 T
Note:
(i) Two parallel wires carrying current in the same
direction attract each other
(ii) Two parallel wires carrying current in the
134
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Principles
THE FORCE OF ATTRACTION OR REPULSION

BETWEEN TWO LONG CONDUCTORS CARRYING
CURRENT. The force of attraction or repulsion
between two long conductors carrying current
kept at a distance r and parallel to each other is
given by
F = 0. I1 . I2
2r
where 0 = 4 x 10-7 N / A2
ELECTRICAL MOTOR: It is a device that is used to

135
convert electrical energy in to mechanical energy.
Electromagnetis
Right Hand RulemFor
Conductors
FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE: To find the direction
of rotation, Stretch out the first finger, the middle
finger and the thumb of the left hand in such a way
that they are mutually at right angles to each
other. If fore-finger points in the direction of the
field and the central finger points in the direction
of the current and the thumb points in the
direction of the force exerted on the conductor
Magnetic Moment of
Field conductor
Direction of
Induced current
136
Electromagnetis
Left Hand Rule
mFor
Conductors
An electromagnetic field is a magnetic field

generated by current flow in a conductor.
Whenever current flows a magnetic field exists
around the conductor.
Every electric current generates a magnetic field.
A definite relationship exists between the
direction of current flow and the direction of the
magnetic field.
137
Electromagnetis
Left Hand Rule
mFor
Conductors
The left-hand rule for conductors demonstrates
this relationship.
If a current-carrying conductor is grasped with the
left hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of
electron flow, the fingers will point in the direction of
the magnetic lines of flux.
138
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Left-hand rule for coils: Principles
A left-hand rule exists

for coils to determine the
direction of the magnetic
field.
The fingers of the left
hand are wrapped
around the coil in the
direction of electron
flow.
The thumb points to the
north pole of the coil.
139
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Current-carrying coil Principles
A coil of wire carrying a current acts like a
magnet.
Individual loops of wire act as small magnets.
The individual fields add together to form
one magnet.
The strength of the field can be increased by
adding more turns to the coil.
The strength can also be increased by
increasing the current.
140
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Principles
Electromagnets:
An electromagnet is composed of a coil
of wire wound around a core.
The core is usually a soft iron which
conducts magnetic lines of force with
relative ease.
When current is passed through the
coil, the core becomes magnetized.
The ability to control the strength and
direction of the magnetic force makes
electromagnets useful.
141
Electromagnetis
m
Basic
Electromagnets: Principles
As with permanent magnets, opposite

poles attract.
An electromagnet can be made to
control the strength of its field which
controls the strength of the magnetic
poles.
A large variety of electrical devices
such as motors, circuit breakers,
contactors, relays and motor starters
use electromagnetic principles. 142
Study
Review
Basic
1. The rate at which work is done is called

___________ .
2. The basic formula for power is ____________ .
3. In a circuit with a 12 volt supply and 4

resistance
the power consumed is ____________ watts.
4. The two characteristics of all magnets are; they

attract and hold ____________ , and if free to move
will assume roughly a ____________ position. 143
Study
Review
Basic
5. Lines of flux always leave the ____________ pole

and
enter the ____________ pole.
6. The left-hand rule for conductors states that

when
the ___________ hand is placed on a current-carrying
conductor with the ____________ pointing in the
direction of electron flow, the fingers will point in
the 144
Study
REVIEW - 6: Review
1) Power; 2) P = E x I;
3) 36 watts; 4) Iron, north-south;
5) North, South; 6) Left, thumb, Lines of

flux;
145
Electromagnetis
m
Relation Between Magnetism & Electricity
Magnetism and electricity are closely related

Magnetism produces the operation of a lot of
electrical equipment such as:
- motors
- generators
- coils or solenoids
146
Electromagnetis
m
N S N S N S N S N S N S
Magnetism results
N S N S N S N S N S N S
when two atoms
are aligned in a
certain way.
147
Electromagnetis
m
In this iron bar, atoms are
aligned at random
therefore, this bar is not
N N S N S
S N
S S
magnetized.
S
S
S N
S N N
N S N N
S
N
N S
148
Electromagnetis
m
Every magnet has a force

field around it. This force
field can be interpreted
as a series of lines
connecting each pole.
N S
N S
149
Electromagnetis
m
The magnetic field can be

distorted into any shape...
S In this case, a piece of
N
iron placed on the magnet
has changed the shape of
the force lines because
these lines take a shortcut
through the iron bar.
150
Electromagnetis
m
N S
Lets imagine the lines of

force as a series of small
magnets with all their
north poles pointing in
one direction and all their
south poles pointing in the
opposite direction.
151
Electromagnetis
m
N S
S
When you move a conductor through a magnetic

field, the lines wrap around the conductor and
produce electricity (induced current).
152
Electromagnetis
m
N S
When you move the conductor in another

direction, the lines of force wrap themselves
in the opposite direction making the electrical
current flow the other way.
153
Electromagnetis
m
This experiments
shows that
magnetism produces
electricity
154
Electromagnetis
m
The system of a coil with a metal core (electromagnet)
is based on the fact that a flow of electrons produces a
magnetic field. This principle, together with the fact that a
conductor moving next to a magnetic field (or vice-versa)
produces a flow of electrons, is used in the manufacture of
many electrical components such as:
relays
solenoids
transformers
generators
motors
155
Electromagnetis
m
When electrons circulate

through a conductor, a
magnetic field is produced
+ - This can be verified by
placing a compass close to
the conductor. The needle
in the compass will point
perpendicular to the
conductor
156
Electromagnetis
m
+ Force lines can be

described as small magnets
If the direction of electron
flow changes, the
orientation of the magnets
(the magnetic field) also
changes
157
Electromagnetis
m
N - Relation Between
Magnetism & Electricity
To produce a stronger
magnetic field, the
conductor can be
wound into a coil.
Thus, our imaginary
magnets become
aligned in such a way
+ that all the north poles
point upward inside
N N the coil and downward
S outside the coil.
158
Electromagnetis
m
The previous figure
N - showed us the problem
of having the north and
south poles in the ends
of the coil joined
together, thus reducing
the magnetic field...
By placing a metal bar
in the center of the coil,
the problem is solved
because a magnetic
+ field travels much more
easily through metal
than through air.
S 159
Electromagnetis
Current Carrying
m
Coil
A coil of wire carrying a current acts like a magnet.
Individual loops of wire act as small magnets. The
individual fields add together to form one magnet.
The strength of the field can be increased by adding
more turns to the coil.
The strength can also be increased by increasing the
current.
160
Electromagnetis
Left Hand Rule
m For
Coils
A left-hand rule exists for coils to determine the
direction of the magnetic field.
The fingers of the left hand are wrapped around the
coil in the direction of electron flow.
The thumb points to the north pole of the coil.
161
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL MOTOR (D.C. MOTOR):
Electric motor is based on the principle of
magnetic effect of current I.e., current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a
mechanical force and can move
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: when a conductor

is placed in a closed coil, it experiences induced
currents. Because of induction currents the
components begin to move. The direction of
rotation is given by Flemings left hand rule
162
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
FARADAYS LAW OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC

INDUCTION:
1. Whenever the number of lines of force linked

with any closed circuit changes, an induced
current flows through the circuit, which lasts
so long as the change lasts. An increase in
the number of lines of force produce a direct
current
2. The magnitude of the induced e.m.f.

produced in the closed circuit is directly
163
proportional to the rate of change of number
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
The direction can also be found by applying
End Rule:
END RULE: It states, if on looking at the end

of a solenoid, the current appears to flow in
clock wise direction, then the pole is the south
pole, if it appears in anti-clockwise direction
then that pole is the north pole
164
Electromagnetis
Electromagnet
m
s
An electromagnet is composed of a coil of wire
wound
around a core. The core is usually a soft iron which
conducts magnetic lines of force with relative ease.
When current is passed through the coil, the core
becomes magnetized.
The ability to control the strength and direction of
the magnetic force makes electromagnets useful. As
with permanent magnets, opposite poles attract.
An electromagnet can be made to control the
strength of its field which controls the strength of
the magnetic poles.
A large variety of electrical devices such as motors,
circuit breakers, contactors, relays and motor
starters use electromagnetic principles.
165
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
CYCLOTRON: It is a machine used to accelerate the
charged particles in a magnetic field
VAN ALLEN RADIATION BELT: It is a vast zone in the

equatorial region, high up in the atmosphere. In
this zone the charged particles are trapped by the
earths magnetic field
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO SOLENOID CARRYING A

CURRENT:
A solenoid consists of a long cylinderical coil, with
many
turns of wire wound around it.
On passing an electric current through a solenoid a
magnetic field is set up. The direction of magnetic
166
field is
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
D.C. GENERATOR: It is also called dynamo.
It is a device that is used for generating electric
current from mechanical force
It products Unidirectional current and e.m.f.
A.C. GENERATOR: It is a device that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
direction of the induced current is given by Flemings
left hand rule
FORCE EXPERIENCED BY A STRAIGHT CURRENT

CARRYING CONDUCTOR: A straight conductor of the
length l carrying a current I when placed
perpendicular to a magnetic field of strength B
experiences a force given by
F=B.I.1.
167
FUSE: It is a safety device. It is used to limit the flow
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
A generator is based on the principle that a
conductor moving close to a magnetic field
or a magnetic field moving close to a
conductor produce a flow of electrons
(current).
Usually, a generator is built by making a coil
spin between the poles of a magnetic field
N S
+
-
168
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
If we measure the voltage
N (electromotive force) instantly in
the wires of the coil, we would
0 + see that the voltage is highest in
this position because the coil is
S
- moving past the strongest part
V of the magnetic field.
In a curve showing voltage vs..
1 time, we could mark this as
V Point 1.
T
Generator
169
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
An instant later, the
N electromotive force decreases
because the magnetic field is
0 + weaker as the coil moves
S away from the center.
-
V This is Point 2 in the voltage
vs. time curve.
V 1
2
T
Generator
170
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
N
As it keeps turning, the
V 0 + electromotive force keeps
S decreasing...
-
Point 3.
V 1
2
T
Generator
171
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
N
Until it reaches zero,
V 0 + because the magnetic field
S has no effect on the coil.
-
Point 4.
V 1
2
T
Generator
172
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
N
V 0 + As the coil keeps turning,

S the voltage becomes
- negative (the electrons flow
in the opposite direction) ...
V 1
2 Point 5
3
5
Generator
173
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
N
V 0 +
S
- The voltage keeps
increasing in the negative
V 1
2
direction...
Point 6
3
5
Generator
6
174
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
N
V 0 +
S
Until it reaches its
- maximum negative value.
Point 7
V 1
2
5
Generator
6 7 175
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
N If we continue measuring, we
obtain several voltage cycles. The
V 0 + shape of this wave is called a sine
wave and this type of current is
S
- called alternating current because
voltage and/or current alternate
from positive to negative.
V 1
2
T
5
Generator
6 7 176
Electromagnetis
m
Basics
N
0 + If we measure the voltage

S (electromotive force) instantly in
-
the wires of the coil, we would
V
see that the voltage is highest in
this position because the coil is
V 1 moving past the strongest part
of the magnetic field.
In a curve showing voltage vs.
time, we could mark this as Point
1.
T
Generator
177
Electromagnetis
m
A motor can be thought of as a generator Basics
working backwards. It is based on the principle
that a flow of electrons passing through a
conductor produces a magnetic field.
This magnetic field produced by the current is
placed inside another magnetic field in such a
way that the poles are always opposite each
other. In order to make the electromagnet
stronger, a metal core is used to direct the
lines of force (see electromagnet).
N
Motor
178
Study Of Electrical Symbols

Electrical Components - Basics
Electrical Circuitry - Basics
179
Symbols In
Electricals
SYMBOLS USED IN CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS Basics
Cell
Battery of Cells
180
Symbols In
Electricals
Switch
( ) Open key plug
181
Symbols In
Electricals
( .) A closed key plug
Reverse switch
182
Symbols In
Electricals
Resistor
Rheostat (Variable Resistance)
183
Symbols In
Electricals
One wire crossing

another
Wires Joined
184
Symbols In
Electricals
Galvanometer
G
Ammeter
A
185
Symbols In
Electricals
Voltmeter
V
87 a 87
85
Relay
86 30
186
Symbols In
Electricals
Not Connected Connected
187
Symbols In
Electricals
Ground
188
Symbols In
Electricals
+ -
Battery
189
Symbols In
Electricals
Fuse
190
Symbols In
Electricals
Switch
(single pole single throw)
191
Symbols In
Electricals
Switch
(single pole double throw)
192
Symbols In
Electricals
Diode
193
Symbols In
Electricals
Light or Indicator
194
Symbols In
Electricals
Electric Coil
195
Symbols In
Electricals
86 85
87 30
Relay 87A
196
Symbols In
Electricals
Horn
197
Symbols In
Electricals
Buzzer
198
Symbols In
Electricals
Resistor
199
Symbols In
Electricals
Variable Resistor
(potentiometer)
(pot)
200
Symbols In
Electricals
HR
Glow Plug
201
Symbols In
Electricals
H
Hour Meter
202
Symbols In
Electricals
GLOW PLUG
OFF
RUN
START
SO
B ST
Ignition Switch
I
203
Symbols In
Electricals
Alternator
204
Symbols In
Electricals
B M
Starter Motor
205
Symbols In
Electricals
M
Blower Motor (fan)
206
Symbols In
Electricals
Fluid Motor
(washer fluid pump)
207
Symbols In
Electricals
V
M
Wiper Motor
208
Symbols In
Electricals
Motor
209
Symbols In
Electricals
Pressure Switch
210
Symbols In
Electricals
B A
Fuel Level Sensor
211
Symbols In
Electricals
Fuel Level Sensor
212
Symbols In
Electricals
A
B
Air Filter Switch

213
Symbols In
Electricals
Air Filter Switch
214
Symbols In
Electricals
+ A
B
-
Oil Pressure Sensor
215
Symbols In
Electricals
Oil Pressure Sensor
216
Symbols In
Electricals
Temperature Sensor
217
Symbols In
Electricals
Temperature Sensor
218
Symbols In
Electricals
Magnetic Pickup
(engine speed)
219
Symbols In
Electricals
Magnetic Pickup
(engine speed)
220
Symbols In
Electricals
Timer Switch
(excavator only)
221
Electrical
Components
Basics
A solenoid is basically
an electromagnet with
a moving metallic
core. When a voltage
is applied to the coil,
the metal core is
centered and act as a
piston.
This way, hydraulic or
pneumatic electrical
valves, pistons, etc.
are activated.
Solenoids
222
Electrical
Components
Basics
They are a special case of
a solenoid with a
stationary electromagnet.
In the drawing, when the
coil is energized, the
electromagnet closes the
contact and allows the
flow of electrons towards
the light bulb.
This item is used to
transmit power (high
amperage) using low
amperage control current.
Relays
223
Electrical
Components
Basics
These are devices that

stop current or allow it
to pass
Switches
224
Electrical
Components
Basics
Colors indicate the value of the resistor
These are used to control or

divide the amount of current
flowing towards a component
(light bulb, motor, solenoid,
device, etc.which is a resistor
in itself.
Variable resistor A particular type or resistor
is the variable resistor or
potentiometer which is used
to vary the current that goes
to a device
Higher resistance = lower current Resistors

225
Electrical
Components
Basics
These are safety devices.

Whenever there is an
excess of current in a
circuit, a thin resistor
inside the fuse get hot and
breaks, opening the circuit
and cutting off the current.
Each fuse is specified for a
maximum amount of
Fusible current and should not be
changed for another having
Links a different capacity.
Fuses
226
Electrical
Components
Basics
Diodes use the properties of certain materials to
allow the flow of current in one direction and
prevent the flow in the opposite direction.
This means that, in one direction the act as a
closed switch and in the other as an open switch.
Current cannot flow
Current can flow
NP NP
- + - +
Diodes
227
Electrical
Circuitry
Basics
Chemical Reactions
+
+
+ +
Another way to produce movement of electrons is

using a battery
The chemical action inside the battery produces an
excess of electrons in the negative terminal and a
shortage of electrons in the positive terminal
228
Electrical
Circuitry
Basics
s
c t ron
e le v e t o
g h g a ti by
h o u n e , Current
Alt from toms has
flow tive
a
it flow
i th at
pos entio ned n
n v e fi f rom
co d
ows
e n fl
be ent to
r
cur tive +
i +
pos tive.. +
a +
neg
In this case, electrons flow through the
conducting wire, through the light bulb (making
it light up) and go back into the battery.
Note that the circuit must be closed for electrons
to flow. Circuit
229
Electrical
Circuitry
Basics
structure (chassis)
+
+
+ +
Conductors dont have to be wires

In the case of vehicles and
machinery, the chassis of the
Circuit
machine is used as a conductor.
230
Electrical
Circuitry
Basics
Usually, circuits have

a switch to start and
stop the flow of
electrons...
In this case, the
circuit is closed and
complete
+
+
+ +
Circuit
231
Electrical
Circuitry
Basics
In this case the

circuit is open and
incomplete;
therefore, there
can be no flow of
electrons.
+
+
+ +
Circuit
232
Introduction to AC
AC Generators
Frequency
Voltage and Current
Inductance
Capacitance
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance
Series R-L-C Circuit
233
Parallel R-L-C Circuit

Power and Power Factor in an AC
Circuit
Transformers
Three-Phase Transformers
234
Introduction to
AC
Basic
Principles
The supply of current for electrical devices
may come from a direct current source (DC),
or an alternating current source (AC).
In direct current electricity, electrons flow
continuously in one direction from the source
of power through a conductor to a load and
back to the source of power.
The voltage in direct current remains
constant. DC power sources include batteries
and DC generators.
In alternating current an AC generator is used
to make electrons flow first in one direction
then in another.
235
Introduction to
AC
Basic
Another name for an AC generator is an
Principles
alternator.
The AC generator reverses terminal polarity
many times a second.
Electrons will flow through a conductor from
the negative terminal to the positive terminal,
first in one direction then another.
236
Introduction to
AC
Basic
AC sine wave: Principles
Alternating voltage and current vary
continuously.
The graphic representation for AC is
a sine wave.
A sine wave can represent current or
voltage.
There are two axes.
The vertical axis represents the
direction and magnitude of current or
voltage.
The horizontal axis represents time.
237
Introduction to
AC
Basic
Principles
238
Introduction to
AC
Basic
When the waveform is above the timePrinciples
axis,
current is flowing in one direction.
This is referred to as the POSITIVE DIRECTION.
When the waveform is below the time axis,
current is flowing in the opposite direction. This
is referred to as the NEGATIVE DIRECTION.
A sine wave moves through a complete rotation
of 360 degrees, which is referred to as one
cycle.
Alternating current goes through many of these
cycles each second.
The unit of measurement of cycles per second is
HERTZ In the United States alternating current is
usually generated at 60 hertz. 239
Introduction to
AC
Basic
Single-phase and three-phase Principles
AC power:
Alternating current is divided into SINGLE-
PHASE and THREEPHASE types.
Single-phase power is used for small electrical
demands such as found in the home.
Three-phase power is used where large blocks
of power are required, such as found in
commercial applications and industrial plants.
Single-phase power is shown in the previous
slide. Three-phase power, as shown in the next
slide, is a continuous series of three
overlapping AC cycles.
Each wave represents a phase, and is offset by
120 electrical degrees. 240
Introduction to
AC
Basic
Principles
241
Basic generator: Introduction to AC
A basic generator consists of aGenerator Basic
magnetic
Principles
field, an armature, slip rings, brushes and a
resistive load.
The magnetic field is usually an
electromagnet.
An armature is any number of conductive
wires wound in loops which rotates through
the magnetic field.
For simplicity, one loop is shown in the next
slide.
When a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the
conductor. 242
Introduction to AC
GeneratorBasic
Basic generator: Principles
As the armature rotates through the
magnetic field, a voltage is generated in
the armature which causes current to
flow.
Slip rings are attached to the armature
and rotate with it.
Carbon brushes ride against the slip
rings to conduct current from the
armature to a resistive load.
243
Introduction to AC
GeneratorBasic
Principles
244
Introduction to AC
Generator
Basic
An armature rotates through the magnetic field.
Operation
At an initial position of zero degrees, the armature
conductors are moving parallel to the magnetic
field and not cutting through any magnetic lines of
flux.
No voltage is induced.
245
Introduction to AC
Generator
Basic
Operation
Generator operation from zero to 90 degrees
The armature rotates from zero to 90 degrees.
The conductors cut through more and more lines of
flux, building up to a maximum induced voltage in
the positive direction.
246
Introduction to AC
Generator
Basic
Operation
Generator operation from 90 to 180 degrees
The armature continues to rotate from 90 to 180
degrees, cutting less lines of flux.
The induced voltage decreases from a maximum
positive value to zero.
247
Introduction to AC
Generator
Basic
Operation
The armature continues to rotate from 180 degrees
to 270 degrees. The conductors cut more and more
lines of flux, but in the opposite direction. Voltage
is induced in the negative direction building up to a
maximum at 270 degrees
248
Introduction to AC
Generator
Basic
Operation
The armature continues to rotate from 270 to 360
degrees. Induced voltage decreases from a
maximum negative value to zero. This completes
one cycle. The armature will continue to rotate at a
constant speed. The cycle will continuously repeat
as long as the armature rotates.
249
Introduction to AC
Frequency: GeneratorBasic
Principles
The number of cycles per second made by voltage
induced in the armature is the frequency of the
generator.
If the armature rotates at a speed of 60
revolutions per second, the generated voltage will
be 60 cycles per second.
The accepted term for cycles per second is hertz.
The standard frequency in the United States is 60
hertz. The following slide shows 15 cycles in 1/4
second which is equivalent to 60 cycles in one
second.
250
Introduction to AC
GeneratorBasic
Frequency: Principles
251
Introduction to AC
GeneratorBasic
Four-pole AC generator: Principles
The frequency is the same as the number of

rotations per second if the magnetic field is
produced by only two poles.
An increase in the number of poles, would cause
an increase in the number of cycles completed in
a revolution.
A two-pole generator would complete one cycle
per revolution and a four-pole generator would
complete two cycles per revolution.
An AC generator produces one cycle per
revolution for
each pair of poles.
252
Introduction to AC
GeneratorBasic
Principles
Four-pole AC generator
253
Introduction to AC
Generator
Voltage &
Peak value: Current
The sine wave illustrates how voltage and
current in an AC circuit rises and falls with time.
The peak value of a sine wave occurs twice each
cycle, once at the POSITIVE MAXIMUM VALUE
and once at the NEGATIVE MAXIMUM VALUE.
254
Introduction to AC
Generator
Voltage &
Peak-to-peak value: Current
The value of the voltage or current between
the peak positive and peak negative values is
called the peak-to-peak value.
255
Introduction to AC
Generator
Voltage &
Instantaneous value: Current
The instantaneous value is the value at any
one particular time.
It can be in the range of anywhere from zero
to the
peak value.
256
Introduction to AC
Calculating instantaneous voltage: Generator
Voltage &
The voltage waveform produced as the armature
Current
rotates
through 360 degrees rotation is called a SINE WAVE
because instantaneous voltage is related to the
trigonometric function called sine (sin = sine of
the angle).
The sine curve represents a graph of the following
equation:
e = Epeak x sin
Instantaneous voltage is equal to the peak voltage
times the sine of the angle of the generator
armature.
The sine value is obtained from trigonometric
tables.
257
The following table reflects a few angles and their
Introduction to AC
Generator
Voltage &
Current
258
Introduction to AC
Generator
Voltage &
Current
The following example illustrates instantaneous
values at 90, 150, and 240 degrees.
The peak voltage is equal to 100 volts.
By substituting the sine at the instantaneous angle
value, the instantaneous voltage can be calculated.
Any instantaneous
value can be
calculated
For example: 240
e = 100 x -0. 866
e = - 86.6volts
259
Introduction to AC
Generator
Voltage &
Effective value of an AC sine wave: Current
Alternating voltage and current are constantly
changing values.
A method of translating the varying values into
an
equivalent constant value is needed.
The effective value of voltage and current is the
common method of expressing the value of AC.
This is also known as the RMS (ROOT-
MEANSQUARE)
value.
If the voltage in the average home is said to be
120 volts, this is the RMS value.
The effective value figures out to be 0.707
times the peak value. 260
Introduction to AC
Generator
Voltage &
Current
261
Introduction to AC
Generator
The effective value of AC is defined in terms
Voltage & of
Current to
an equivalent heating effect when compared
DC.
One RMS ampere of current flowing through a
resistance will produce heat at the same rate as
a DC ampere.
For purpose of circuit design, the peak value
may also be needed.
For example, insulation must be designed to
withstand
the peak value, not just the effective value.
It may be that only the effective value is known.
To calculate the peak value, multiply the
effective value by 1.41.
For example, if the effective value is 100 volts,
262
Study
Review
Basic
1. The graphic representation of AC voltage or current
values over a period of time is a ________ ________ .
2. Each phase of three phase AC power is offset by ____

degrees.
3. An AC generator produces ____________ cycle per

revolution for each pair of poles.
4. What is the instantaneous voltage at 240 degrees for

a peak voltage of 150 volts ?
5. What is the effective voltage for a peak voltage of

150 volts?
263
Study
REVIEW - 7: Review
1) Sine wave; 2) 120 degrees;
3) One; 4) -129.9 volts;
5) 106.05 volts rms.
264
Introduction to AC -
InductanceBasic
Inductance:
Principles
The circuits studied to this point have been
resistive. Resistance and voltage are not the
only circuit properties that effect current flow,
however, Inductance is the property of an
electric circuit that opposes any change in
electric current.
Resistance opposes current flow, inductance
opposes change in current flow.
Inductance is designated by the letter L. The
unit of measurement for inductance is the
henry (h).
265
InductanceBasic
Current flow and field strength:
Principles
Current flow produces a magnetic field in a
conductor. The amount of current determines
the strength of the magnetic field.
As current flow increases, field strength
increases, and
as current flow decrease, field strength
decreases.
266
InductanceBasic
Any change in current causes a corresponding
Principles
change in the magnetic field surrounding the
conductor. Current is constant in DC, except
when the circuit is turned on and off, or when
there is a load change. Current is constantly
changing in AC, so inductance is a continual
factor.
A change in the magnetic field surrounding the
conductor induces a voltage in the conductor.
This self-induced voltage opposes the change
in current.
This is known as counter emf.
This opposition causes a delay in the time it
takes current to attain its new steady value.
267
InductanceBasic
If current increases, inductance tries to hold it
Principles
down.
If current decreases, inductance tries to hold it
up. Inductance is somewhat like mechanical
inertia, which must be overcome to get a
mechanical object moving, or to stop a
mechanical object from moving.
A vehicle, for example, takes a few moments to
accelerate to a desired speed, or decelerate to a
stop.
268
InductanceBasic
Inductors: Principles
Inductance is usually indicated symbolically on
an electrical drawing by one of two ways.
A curled line or a filled rectangle can be used.
Inductors are coils of wire.
They may be wrapped around a core.
The inductance of a coil is determined by the
number of turns in the coil, the spacing
between the turns, the coil diameter, the core
material, the number of layers of windings, the
type of winding, and the shape of the coil.
Examples of inductors are transformers,
chokes, and motors.
269
InductanceBasic
Simple inductive circuit: Principles
In a resistive circuit, current change is
considered instantaneous.
If an inductor is used, the current does not
change as quickly.
In the following circuit, initially the switch is
open and there is no current flow.
When the switch is closed, current will rise
rapidly at first, then more slowly as the
maximum value is approached.
For the purpose of
explanation, a DC
circuit is used.
270
Inductive time constant: InductanceBasic
The time required for the current to rise to Principles
its
maximum value is determined by the ratio of
inductance, in henrys, to resistance, in ohms.
This ratio is called the time constant of the inductive
circuit.
A time constant is the time, in seconds, required for
the circuit current to rise to 63.2% of its maximum
value.
When the switch is closed in the previous circuit,
current will begin to flow.
During the first time constant current rises to 63.2%
of its maximum value.
During the second time constant, current rises to
63.2% of the remaining 36.8%, or a total of 86.4%.
It takes about five time constants for current to reach
its maximum value. 271
InductanceBasic
Principles
Similarly, when the switch is opened, it will take

five time constants for current to reach zero. It can
be seen that inductance is an important factor in
AC circuits. If the frequency is 60 hertz, current will
rise and fall from its peak value to zero 120 times a
second. 272
InductanceBasic
Principles
273
InductanceBasic
Principles
Calculating the time constant of an inductive
circuit:
The time constant is designated by the symbol .
To determine the time constant of an inductive
circuit use one of the following formulas:
(in seconds) = L (in henrys)
R (in Ohms)
L (in millihenrys)
(in milliseconds) =
R (in Ohms)
L (in microhenrys)
(in microseconds) =
R (in Ohms)
274
InductanceBasic
Principles
In the following illustration, L1 is equal to 15
millihenrys and R1 is equal to 5 . When the switch
is closed, it will take 3 milliseconds for current to
rise from zero to 63.2% of its maximum value.
= 15 mh
=3 milliseconds
5
275
Formula for series inductors: InductanceBasic
The same rules for calculating total resistance
Operationcan
be
applied.
In the following circuit, an AC generator is used to
supply electrical power to four inductors.
There will always be some amount of resistance
and inductance in any circuit.
The electrical wire used in the circuit and the
inductors both have some resistance and
inductance.
Total inductance is calculated using the following
formula:
276
InductanceBasic
Operation
277
InductanceBasic
Formula for parallel inductors: Principles
In the following circuit, an AC generator is used
to supply electrical power to three inductors.
Total inductance is calculated using the following
formula:
278
CapacitanceBasic
Capacitance and capacitors: Principles
Capacitance is a measure of a circuits ability to
store an electrical charge.
A device manufactured to have a specific
amount of capacitance is called a capacitor.
A capacitor is made up of a pair of conductive
plates separated by a thin layer of insulating
material.
Another name for the insulating material is
dielectric
material.
279
CapacitanceBasic
Principles
When a voltage is applied to the plates,
electrons are forced onto one plate.
That plate has an excess of electrons while the
other plate has a deficiency of electrons.
The plate with an excess of electrons is
negatively charged.
The plate with a deficiency of electrons is
positively charged.
280
CapacitanceBasic
Principles
Direct current cannot flow through the
dielectric material because it is an insulator.
Capacitors have a capacity to hold a specific
quantity of electrons.
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the
area of the plates, the distance between the
plates, and the material of the dielectric.
The unit of measurement for capacitance is
farads, abbreviated F
Capacitors usually are rated in F
(microfarads), or pF (picofarads).
281
CapacitanceBasic
Capacitor circuit symbols: Principles
Capacitance is usually indicated symbolically on

an electrical drawing by a combination of a
straight line with a curved line, or two straight
lines.
282
CapacitanceBasic
Simple capacitive circuit:
Principles
In a resistive circuit, voltage change is
considered instantaneous. If a capacitor is used,
the voltage across the capacitor does not
change as quickly.
In the following circuit, initially the switch is
open and no voltage is applied to the capacitor.
When the switch is closed, voltage across the
capacitor will rise rapidly at first, then more
slowly as the maximum value is approached. For
the purpose of explanation, a DC circuit is used.
283
CapacitanceBasic
Capacitive time constant: Principles
The time required for voltage to rise to its

maximum value in a circuit containing
capacitance is determined by the product of
capacitance, in farads, times resistance, in
ohms.
This is the time it takes a capacitor to become
fully charged.
This product is the time constant of a capacitive
circuit.
The time constant gives the time in seconds
required for voltage across the capacitor to
reach 63.2% of its maximum value.
284
CapacitanceBasic
Capacitive time constant: Principles
When the switch is closed in the previous

circuit, voltage will be applied.
During the first time constant, voltage will rise
to 63.2% of its maximum value.
During the second time constant, voltage will
rise to 63.2% of the remaining 36.8%, or a
total of 86.4%.
It takes about five time constants for voltage
across
the capacitor to reach its maximum value.
285
CapacitanceBasic
Principles
Similarly, during
this same time, it
will take five time
constants
for current
through the
resistor to reach
zero.
286
CapacitanceBasic
Calculating the time constant of a capacitive
Principles
circuit:
To determine the time constant of a capacitive
circuit, use one of the following formulas:
x C (in
(in seconds) =R (in megaohms)
microfarads)
x C (in
R (in megaohms)
(in microseconds)=
picofarads)
x C (in
(in microseconds)=R (in ohms)
microfarads)
287
In the following illustration, C1 isCapacitance
equal toBasic
2 F,
and R1 is equal to 10 . When the switch is
Principles
closed, it will take
20 microseconds for voltage across the capacitor
to rise
from zero to 63.2% of its maximum value. There
are five
time constants, so it will take 100 microseconds
for this voltage to rise to its maximum value.
=RC
= 2 F x 10
= 20
microseconds
288
CapacitanceBasic
Formula for series capacitors: Principles
Connecting capacitors in series decreases total
capacitance.
The effect is like increasing the space between the
plates. The rules for parallel resistance apply to
series capacitance.
In the following circuit, an AC generator supplies
electrical power to three capacitors.
Total capacitance is calculated using the following
formula:
289
Formula for parallel capacitors: Capacitance Basic
In the following circuit, an AC generator Principles
is used to
supply
electrical power to three capacitors. Total
capacitance is calculated using the following
formula:
290
Inductive & Capacitive
Reactance Basic
Principles
In a purely resistive AC circuit, opposition to
current flow is called resistance.
In an AC circuit containing only inductance,
capacitance, or both, opposition to current
flow is called reactance.
Total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit
that contains both reactance and resistance is
called impedance designated by the symbol
Z.
Reactance and impedance are expressed in
ohms.
291
Study
Review
Basic
1. The total inductance for this circuit is ___________ .
2. The total inductance for this circuit is

____________.
292
Study
Review
Basic
3. The total capacitance for this circuit is ___________
.
4. The total capacitance for this circuit is

____________.
293
Study
REVIEW - 8: Review
1) 10 h; 2) 2.5 h;
3) 2.5 F; 4) 25 F ;
294
Reactance Basic
Inductive reactance: Principles
Inductance only affects current flow when the

current is
changing.
Inductance produces a self-induced voltage
(counter emf) that opposes changes in current.
In an AC circuit, current is changing constantly.
Inductance in an AC circuit, therefore, causes a
continual opposition.
This opposition to current flow is called inductive
reactance, and is designated by the symbol X L.
295
Reactance Basic
Inductive reactance: Principles
Inductance only affects current flow when the

current is changing.
Inductance produces a self-induced voltage
(counter emf) that opposes changes in current.
In an AC circuit, current is changing constantly.
Inductance in an AC circuit, therefore, causes a
continual opposition.
This opposition to current flow is called
inductive reactance, and is designated by the
symbol XL.
296
Reactance Basic
Principles
Inductive reactance is dependent on the
amount of inductance and frequency.
If frequency is low current has more time to
reach a higher value before the polarity of the
sine wave reverses.
If frequency is high current has less time to
reach a higher value.
In the following illustration, voltage remains
constant. Current rises to a higher value at a
lower frequency than a higher frequency.
297
Reactance Basic
Principles
298
Reactance Basic
The formula for inductive reactance is: Principles
XL = 2fl
XL = 2 x 3.14 x frequency x
inductance
In a 60 hertz, 10 volt circuit containing a 10 mh
inductor, the inductive reactance would be:
XL = 2fl
XL = 2 x 3.14 x 60 x 0.010
XL = 3.768
Once inductive reactance is known, Ohms Law
can be used to calculate reactive current.
I=E I= 10 I= 2.65 Amps
Z 3.768
299
Reactance Basic
Principles
Phase relationship between current and voltage
in an inductive circuit:
Current does not rise at the same time as the
source voltage in an inductive circuit.
Current is delayed depending on the amount of
inductance.
In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage
rise and fall at the same time.
They are said to be in phase.
In this circuit there is no inductance, resistance
and impedance are the same.
300
Reactance Basic
Principles
301
Reactance Basic
Principles
In a purely inductive circuit, current lags behind

voltage by 90 degrees. Current and voltage are
said to be out of phase. In this circuit above,
impedance and inductive reactance are the same. 302
Reactance Basic
Principles
All inductive circuits have some amount of
resistance. AC current will lag somewhere
between a purely resistive circuit, and a purely
inductive circuit.
The exact amount of lag depends on the ratio of
resistance and inductive reactance.
The more resistive a circuit is, the closer it is to
being in phase.
The more inductive a circuit is, the more out of
phase it is.
In the following illustration, resistance and
inductive reactance are equal.
Current lags voltage by 45 degrees.
303
Reactance Basic
Principles
304
Calculating impedance in an inductive circuit:
Reactance Basic
When working with a circuit containing elements
Principles
of inductance, capacitance, and resistance,
impedance must be calculated.
Because electrical concepts deal with
trigonometric
functions, this is not a simple matter of
subtraction and
addition.
The following formula is used to calculate
impedance
in an inductive circuit:
305
Reactance Basic
In the circuit illustrated below, resistance and
Principles
inductive reactance are each 10 ohms. Impedance
is 14.1421 ohms.
A simple application of Ohms Law can be used to
find total circuit current.
306
Reactance Basic
Vectors: Principles
Another way to represent this is with a vector.

A vector is a graphic representation of a
quantity that has direction and magnitude.
A vector on a map might indicate that one city
is 50 miles southwest from another.
The magnitude is 50 miles, and the direction is
southwest.
Vectors are also used to show electrical
relationships. As mentioned earlier, impedance
(Z) is the total opposition to current flow in an
AC circuit containing
resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
307
Reactance Basic
Principles
The following vector illustrates the relationship
between resistance and inductive reactance of
a circuit containing equal values of each.
The angle between the vectors is the phase
angle represented by the symbol .
When inductive reactance is equal to resistance
the resultant angle is 45 degrees.
It is this angle that determines how much
current will lag voltage.
308
Reactance Basic
Principles
Capacitive reactance:
Capacitance also opposes AC current flow.
Capacitive reactance is designated by the
symbol XC. The larger the capacitor, the
smaller the capacitive reactance.
Current flow in a capacitive AC circuit is also
dependent on frequency.
The following formula is used to calculate
capacitive reactance:
XC = 1
2fC
Capacitive reactance is equal to 1 divided by 2
times pi, times the frequency, times the
capacitance. 309
Reactance Basic
In a 60 hertz, 10 volt circuit containing aPrinciples
10
microfarad capacitor the capacitive reactance
would be: XC = 1
XC = 1
2fC 2x 3.14 x 60 x
XC = 2.65390.000010
Once capacitive reactance is known, Ohms Law

can be used to calculate reactive current.
I=E I= 10 I= 0.0376 Amps

Z 265.39
310
Reactance Basic
Phase relationship between current andPrinciples
voltage
in a
capacitive circuit:
The phase relationship between current and
voltage are opposite to the phase relationship
of an inductive circuit.
In a purely capacitive circuit, current leads
voltage by 90 degrees.
311
Reactance Basic
All capacitive circuits have some amount of
Principles
resistance. AC current will lead somewhere
between a purely resistive circuit and a purely
capacitive circuit.
The exact amount of lead depends on the ratio
of resistance and capacitive reactance.
The more resistive a circuit is, the closer it is to
being
in phase.
The more capacitive a circuit is, the more out of
phase it is. In the next illustration, resistance
and
capacitive reactance are equal.
Current leads voltage by 45 degrees.
312
Reactance Basic
Principles
313
Reactance Basic
Principles
Calculating impedance in a capacitive circuit:
The following formula is used to calculate impedance
capacitive circuit:
In the circuit illustrated in below,
resistance
and capacitive reactance are each 10 ohms
Impedance is 14.1421 ohms.
314
Reactance Basic
Principles
The following vector illustrates the relationship
between resistance and capacitive reactance of
a circuit containing equal values of each.
The angle between the vectors is the phase
angle represented by the symbol .
When capacitive reactance is equal to
resistance the resultant angle is -45 degrees.
It is this angle that determines how much
current will lead voltage.
315
Study
Review
Basic
1. In a circuit containing inductance, capacitance,

or
both, opposition to current flow is called
___________ .
2. Total opposition to current flow in a circuit that

contains both reactance and resistance is called
_______ .
3. In a 50 hertz circuit, containing a 10 h inductor,

the
inductive reactance is ____________ ohms.
4. In a purely inductive circuit: 316

Study
Review
Basic
5. In a purely capacitive circuit:

a. current and voltage are in phase
b. current leads voltage by 90 degrees
c. current lags voltage by 90 degrees
6. In a 50 hertz circuit, containing a 10 microfarad

capacitor, the capacitive reactance is ____________
.
7. In a circuit with 5 W resistance, and 10 W

inductive
reactance, impedance is ____________ ohms.
8. In a circuit with 5 resistance, and 4 317

Study
REVIEW - 9: Review
1) Reactance; 2) Impedance;
3) 3.14 ; 4) c;
5) b; 6) 318.5 ;
7) 11.18 ; 8) 6.4 ;
318
Reactance Basic
Principles
Series R-L-C Circuit:
Circuits often contain elements of resistance,
inductance, and capacitance.
In an inductive AC circuit, current lags voltage
by 90 degrees.
In a AC capacitive circuit, current leads voltage
by 90 degrees.
It can be seen that inductance and capacitance
are 180 degrees apart.
Since they are 180 degrees apart, one element
will cancel out all or part of the other element.
319
An AC circuit is: Inductive & Capacitive
Reactance Basic
Principles
XL R
XC
Resistive if XL and XC are
equal
Inductive if XL is greater than
XC
Capacitive if XC is greater
320
Reactance Basic
Principles
Calculating total impedance in a series R-L-C
circuit:
The following formula is used to calculate total
impedance of a circuit containing resistance,
capacitance, and inductance:
In the case where inductive reactance is greater

than capacitive reactance, subtracting XC from
XL results in a positive number.
The positive phase angle is an indicator that the
net circuit reactance is inductive, and current
lags voltage.
321
Reactance Basic
Principles
In the case where capacitive reactance is
greater than inductive reactance, subtracting
XC from XL results in a negative number.
The negative phase angle is an indicator that
the net
circuit reactance is capacitive and current
leads voltage. In either case, the value squared
will result in positive number.
322
Reactance Basic
Calculating reactance and impedance in Principles
a series R-
L-C circuit:
In the following 120 volt, 60 hertz circuit,
resistance is 1000 , inductance is 5 mh, and
capacitance is 2 F.
To calculate total impedance, first calculate the

value of XL and XC, then impedance can be 323
Reactance Basic
Calculating reactance and impedance in Principles
a series R-
L-C circuit:
In the above 120 volt, 60 hertz circuit, resistance
is 1000 , inductance is 5 mh, and capacitance is 2
XL = 2fl
F.
XL = 2 x 3.14 x frequency x
inductance XC = 1
XL = 6.28 x 60 x 0.05 6.28 x 60 x
XL = 1.884
0.000002
XC = 1
2fC
XC = 1.327 324
Reactance Basic
Principles
Calculating circuit
current in a series R-L-
C circuit:
Ohms Law can be
applied to calculate
total circuit current.
I=E
I= 120
Z
1660.1 I= 0.072 Amps
325
Reactance Basic
Parallel R-L-C Circuit:
Principles
Calculating impedance in a parallel R-L-C circuit
Total impedance (Zt) can be calculated in a parallel
R-L-C
circuit if values of resistance and reactance are
known. One method of calculating impedance
involves Zfirst calculating total current, then using
t = Et
the followingItformula:
Total current is the vector sum of current
flowing through the resistance plus, the
difference between inductive current and
capacitive current. This is expressed in the
following formula:
326
Reactance Basic
In the following circuit 120 volt, 60 hertz circuit, Principles
Capacitive
reactance has been calculated to be 25 and inductive
reactance 50 . Resistance is 1000 .
A simple application of Ohms Law will find the

branch currents. Remember, voltage is constant
throughout a parallel circuit.
Ir = E Ir = 120 Ir = 0.12 Amps
R 1000
327
Reactance Basic
Principles
Il = E Il = 120 Il = 2.4 Amps
Xl 50
Ic = E Ic = 120 Ic = 4.8 Amps

Xc 25
Once the branch currents are known, total
current can be calculated.
Impedance is now found with
an application of Ohm's Law.
Zt = Et Zt = 120 Zt = 50
It 2.4
328
AC - True Power & Apparent
Power Basic
Power and Power Factor in an AC Circuit:Principles
Power consumed by a resistor is dissipated in

heat and not returned to the source.
This is true power.
True power is the rate at which energy is used.
Current in an AC circuit rises to peak values and
diminishes to zero many times a second.
The energy stored in the magnetic field of an
inductor, or plates of a capacitor, is returned to
the source when current changes direction.
Power in an AC circuit is the vector sum of true
power and reactive power.
This is called apparent power. 329
Power Basic
Power and Power Factor in an AC Circuit:Principles
True power is equal to apparent power in a
purely resistive circuit because voltage and
current are in phase.
Voltage and current are also in phase in a
circuit containing equal values of inductive
reactance and capacitive reactance.
If voltage and current are 90 degrees out of
phase, as would be in a purely capacitive or
purely inductive circuit, the average value of
true power is equal to zero.
There are high positive and negative peak
values of power, but when added together the
result is zero. 330
Power Basic
True power and apparent power formulas:Principles
The formula for apparent power is:

P = EI
Apparent power is measured in volt-amps (VA).
True power is calculated from another

trigonometric function, the cosine of the phase
angle (cos ).
The formula for true power is:

P = EI cos
True power is measured in watts.
331
In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage
Power Basic
are in phase. Principles
There is a zero degree angle displacement
between current and voltage. The cosine of zero
is one.
Multiplying a value by one does not change the
value.
In a purely resistive circuit the cosine of the
angle is ignored.
In a purely reactive circuit, either inductive or
capacitive, current and voltage are 90 degrees
out of phase.
The cosine of 90 is zero.
Multiplying a value times zero results in a zero
product.
No power is consumed in a purely reactive 332
Power Basic
Calculating apparent power in a simple R-L-C
Principles
circuit:
In the following 120 volt circuit, it is equal to 84.9
milliamps.
Inductive reactance is 100 W and capacitive
reactance is
1100 W.
The phase angle is -45 degrees.
By referring to a trigonometric table, the cosine of
-45 degrees is found to be 0.7071.The apparent
power consumed
by the circuit is:
P=EI
P = 120 x 0.0849
P = 10.2 VA 333
Power Basic
Principles
alculating apparent power in a simple R-L-C circuit:
The true power consumed by the circuit is:

P = EI cos
P = 120 x 0.0849 x 0.7071
P = 7.2 Watts
Another formula for true power
P = I2 R
P = 0.08492 x 1000
P = 7.2 Watts
334
Power Basic
Power factor: (PF) Principles
Power factor is the ratio of true power to apparent
power in an AC circuit.
Power factor is expressed in the following formula:
PF = PT
PA
Power factor can also be expressed using the
formulas for true power and apparent power.
The value of EI cancels out because it is the same
in the numerator and denominator.
Power factor is the cosine of the angle.
PF = EI Cos
EI
Hence: PF = Cos
335
Power Basic
In a purely resistive circuit, where current and
voltage are in phase, there is no angle of
displacement between current and voltage.
The cosine of a zero degree angle is one.
The power factor is one.
This means that all energy delivered by the source
is consumed by the circuit and dissipated in the
form of heat.
336
Reactance Basic
In a purely reactive circuit, voltage and current
are 90 degrees apart.
The cosine of a 90 degree angle is zero.
The power factor is zero.
This means the circuit returns all energy it
receives from the source to the source.
337
Reactance Basic
Power factor: (PF)
Principles
In a circuit where reactance and resistance are
equal, voltage and current are displaced by 45
degrees.
The cosine of a 45 degree angle is 0.7071.
The power factor is 0.7071.
This means the circuit has used approximately 70%
of the energy supplied by the source and returned
approximately 30%.
338
Study
Review
Basic
1. An AC circuit is ____________ if inductive reactance

and capacitive reactance are equal.
2. A series AC circuit is ____________ if there is more

inductive reactance than capacitive reactance.
3. A series AC circuit is ____________ if there is more

capacitive reactance than inductive reactance.
4. In a 120 VAC, 60 hertz series circuit, with 1000 o

resistance, 10 h of inductance and 4 F of capacitan
impedance is _______ and current is________ amps.
339
Study
Review
Basic
5. In the illustrated circuit below:
It is ____________ amps, and impedance is ________ .
6. True power is measured in ____________ .
7. A circuit with 0.2 amps flowing through 100 of

resistance, is consuming ____________ watts. 340
Study
REVIEW - 10: Review
1) Resistive; 2) Inductive;
3) Capacitive; 4) 1198 , 0.1

amp;
5) 84.9 milliamps, 1414.2 ; 6) Watts;
7) 4 watts;
341
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Transformers: - Mutual induction
Principles
Transformers are electromagnetic devices that
transfer electrical energy from one circuit to
another by mutual induction.
Mutual induction is the coupling of inductance's by

their
mutual magnetic fields.
In a single-phase transformer there are two coils,

a primary and a secondary coil.
342
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Principles
The following circuit illustrates mutual induction.
The AC generator provides electrical power to the
primary coil. The magnetic field produced by the
primary induces a voltage into the secondary coil,
which supplies power to a load.
343
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Transformers:
Principles
Transformers are used to step a voltage up to a
higher level, or down to a lower level.
Transformers are used extensively in power
distribution systems, allowing power companies
to transfer electrical energy many miles.
Power generators typically generate high
voltages.
This voltage varies, depending on the generator,
but a typical voltage might be 15 kV.
The voltage is stepped up through a transformer
to higher levels for transmission to substations.
Typical voltages range from 115 kV to 765 kV. 344
Introduction To
Transformers: Transformers
Basic
Principles
The electrical power is received at substation
transformers many miles away where it is stepped
down. Typical voltage might be 34 kV or 69 kV.
From here, electrical power is fed to a distribution
substation.
It can also be fed directly to factory locations.
If the power is fed to a factory, transformers at
the factory site reduce the voltage to usable
levels.
The power fed to a distribution substation is
reduced by transformers at the substation for
factory and home use.
345
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Coefficient of coupling: Principles
Mutual inductance between two coils depends on
their flux linkage.
Maximum coupling occurs when all the lines of flux
from the primary coil cut through the secondary
winding.
The amount of coupling which takes place is
referred to as coefficient of coupling.
To maximize coefficient of coupling, both coils are
often wound on an iron core which is used to
provide a path for the lines of flux.
346
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
The following discussion of step-up and Principles
step-
down transformers applies to transformers with
an iron core.
347
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Principles
Voltage, current, and the number of turns in a coil:
There is a direct relationship between voltage,

impedance, current, and the number of coil turns
in a transformer.
This relationship can be used to find either primary
or secondary voltage, current, and the number of
turns in each coil.
It is the number of turns which determine if a
transformer is a step up or step down transformer.
348
Introduction To
The following Transformers
rules-of-thumb applyBasicto
Principles
transformers:
If the primary coil has fewer turns than
the secondary coil, it is a step-up
transformer.
If the primary coil has more turns than
the secondary coil, it is a step-down
transformer.
When the number of turns on the primary
and secondary coils of a transformer are
equal, input voltage, impedance, and
current are equal to output voltage,
impedance, and current. 349
Introduction To
Step-up transformer: Transformers
Basic
A step-up transformer is used when it isPrinciples
desirable
to step voltage up in value.
The following circuit illustrates a step-up
transformer. The primary coil has fewer turns than
the secondary coil.
The number of turns in a transformer is given as a
ratio. When the primary has fewer turns than the
secondary,
voltage and impedance are stepped up.
350
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
In the circuit illustrated, voltage is stepped up
Principles
from 120 VAC to 240 VAC.
Since impedance is also stepped up, current is
stepped
down from 10 amps to 5 amps.
351
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Step-down transformer: Principles
A step-down transformer is used when it is
desirable to step voltage down in value.
The following circuit illustrates a step-down
transformer. The primary coil has more turns than
the secondary coil.
352
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
The step-down ratio is 2:1. Voltage and Principles
impedance are stepped down, current is stepped
up.
353
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Single-phase transformer connections: Principles
120 or 240 VAC single-phase transformers are

used to supply lighting, receptacle, and small
appliance loads.
A transformer with a 240 VAC secondary can be
used to supply 240 VAC to larger appliances such
as stoves, air conditioners and heaters.
A 240 VAC secondary can be tapped in the center
to provide two sources of 120 VAC power.
354
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Principles
355
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Formulas for calculating the number of
Principles
primary and secondary turns of a
transformer:
There are a number of useful formulas for

calculating, voltage, current, and the
number of turns between the primary
and secondary of a transformer.
These formulas can be used with either
step-up or step-down transformers.
356
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
e Efollowing legend applies to the Principles
transformer formula
S = secondary voltage To find
Voltage:
EP = primary voltage
ES = EP x IP
IS = secondary current
IS
IP = primary current
NS = turns in the secondary coilE
P = ES x IS
NP =To find in the primary To
turns find number of Coil
coil I
Current: Turns: P
IS = EP x IP NS = E S x NP
ES EP
IP = ES x IS N P = EP x N S
357
EP ES
Introduction To
Transformers
Basic
Principles
Using the values for the step-down transformer
in the example of the previous slide, the
secondary voltage can be verified.
ES = EP x IP
ES = 240ISvolts x 5
Amps
10 Amps
ES = 120 volts
358
Transformer ratings:
Transformers are rated in Introduction
kVA (kilovolt-
To
amps). Transformers
Basic
This rating is used rather than watts Principles
because loads are not purely resistive.
Only resistive loads are measured in
watts.
The kVA rating determines the current a
transformer can deliver to its load
without overheating.
Given volts and amps, kVA can be
calculated.
Given kVA and volts, amps can be
calculated.
KVA = volts x Amps and, Amps = KVA 359
x
Introduction To
Transformers
Basicthe
Using the illustrated step-down transformer,
kVA rating can be calculated. Principles
The kVA rating of a transformer is the same for
both the primary and the secondary.
Primary kVA = 240 x 5 ie: Primary kVA = 1.2
kVA
1000
Secondary kVA = 120 x 10 ie: Secondary kVA =

1.2 kVA
1000
360
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
Principles
Transformer losses:
Most of the electrical energy provided to

the primary of a transformer is
transferred to the secondary.
Some energy, however, is lost in heat in
the wiring or the core.
Some losses in the core can be reduced
by building the core of a number of flat
sections called laminations.
361
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
Principles
Three-Phase Transformers: - Delta connections
Three-phase transformers are used when three-
phase power is required for larger loads such as
industrial motors.
There are two basic three-phase transformer
connections, delta and wye.
Delta transformers are used where the distance
from the supply to the load is short.
A delta is like three singlephase transformers
connected together.
The secondary of a delta transformer is
illustrated below in the next slide.
For simplicity, only the secondary of a three-
phase transformer is shown. 362
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
L1 to L2 = 480 volts Principles
L2 to L3 = 480 volts
L1 to L3 = 480 volts
363
Three Phase
Three-Phase Transformers: - DeltaTransformers
connections
Basic
Principles
The voltages across each winding of the delta
triangle represents one phase of a three phase
system.
The voltage is always the same between any
two wires.
A single phase (L1 to L2) can be used to supply
single phase loads.
All three phases are used to supply three phase
loads.
The voltages shown on the illustration are
secondary voltages available to the load.
Delta transformers are schematically drawn in a
triangle. 364
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
Principles
The voltages across each winding of the delta

triangle represents one phase of a three phase
system.
The voltage is always the same between any two
wires.
A single phase (L1 to L2) can be used to supply
single phase loads.
All three phases are used to supply three phase365
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
Balanced delta current: Principles
When current is the same in all three coils, it is

said to be balanced.
In each phase, current has two paths to follow.
For example, current flowing from L1 to the
connection point at the top of the delta can flow
down through one coil to L2, and down through
another coil to L3.
When current is balanced, coil current is 58% of
the line current measured on each phase.
366
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
Principles
If the line current is 50 amps on each phase, coil
current would be 29 amps.
367
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
Unbalanced delta current: Principles
When current is different in all three coils, it is
unbalanced.
The following diagram depicts an unbalanced
system.
368
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
Principles
Though current is usually measured with an
ammeter, line current of an unbalanced delta
transformer can be calculated with the following
formulas:
369
Three Phase
Wye connections: Transformers
Basic
The wye connection is also known as a Principles
star
connection.
Three transformers are connected to form a Y
shape. The wye transformer secondary, (shown
next slide) has four leads, three phase
conductors, and one neutral.
The voltage across any phase (line-to-neutral)
will always be less than the line-to-line voltage.
The line-to-line voltage is 1.732 times the line-
to-neutral voltage.
In the circuit below, line-to-neutral voltage is
277 volts. Line-to-line voltage will be 480 volts
370
(277 x 1.732).
Three Phase
Transformers
Basic
Principles
Wye connections:
371
Study
Review
Basic
1. If the primary of a transformer has more turns

than
the secondary, it is a ____________ transformer.
2. If the primary of a transformer has fewer turns

than
the secondary, it is a ____________ transformer.
3. The secondary voltage of an iron-core

transformer
with 240 volts on the primary, 40 amps on the
primary, 372
Study
Review
Basic
4. A transformer with a 480 volt, 10 amp primary,

and a
240 volt, 20 amp secondary will be rated for
____________ kVA.
5. A wye connected, three-phase transformer

secondary,
with 240 volts line-to-line will have ____________
volts line-to-neutral.
373
Study
REVIEW - 11: Review
1) Step-down; 2) Step-up;
3) 480 volts; 4) 4.8 kVA;
5) 138.56 volts;
374
Batter
y
375
Batter
yDefine
d
376
Batter
yDefine
d
377
Batter
y
Define
The most commonly used batteries in support
d
equipment are lead-acid batteries. The battery is
used to start the engine, and it aids the
generator in meeting the electrical systems
power demands under low rpm and heavy load
conditions. The battery can also supply a limited
amount of power for a short time without
operating the generator.
Active materials within the battery react
chemically to produce a flow of direct current
whenever a load is connected. This current is
produced by chemical reaction between the
active materials of the lead plates and the
sulfuric acid of the electrolyte.
378
Batter
yDefine
A battery consists of a number of cells d
connected
together.
The number of cells depends on the voltage
desired. Three cells connected in series make
up what is commonly called a 6-volt battery.
A 12-volt battery is made up of six cells
connected in series, and a 24-volt battery has
12 cells connected in series.
Most references on batteries state that each
cell has a voltage of 2.0 volts.
But each cell actually produces about 2.15
volts (no load) if a very accurate voltmeter is
used and the cell is fully charged. 379
Batter
yDefine
When the cells are connected in series to d form
a battery, it makes a noticeable difference in
the battery voltage (6.45 volts for the 6-volt
battery, 12.9 volts for the 12-volt battery, and
25.8 volts for the 24-volt battery).
For purposes of discussion, however, we will
refer to the cells as having a voltage of 2.0
volts.
Each cell contains positive lead plates and
negative
lead plates.
380
Batter
y
Constructio
n
381
Batter
y Basic
Cell s
2 Volts per cell = 6 x 2 = 12 volts
_
+
Separator Gap 1/2
Positive Plate
Cell Electrolyte less can
Negative Plate Partition cause oxidation
BATTERY
Hard Rubber Polypropylene (Resistance to Vibra
382
Batter
y Basic
s
As shown in slide its components. Six plate groups
or elements are located in separate cells. Each cell
is filled with a water/ acid solution called
electrolyte.
The elements or plate groups are made of positive

and negative plates that are kept apart by a porous
separator. Chemical reaction between the
electrolyte and the active material on the two
plates cause a voltage of about 2 volts per cell. The
six cells are connected in series resulting in 12 volts
total. Therefore, when a conductor is connected to
the battery terminals, direct current flows through
the conductor.
383
Batter
y
384
Batter
y
385
Batter
y
386
Batter
y
387
Batter
y
388
Batter
y
389
Batter
y
390
Batter
y
391
Batter
y
392
Batter
y Basic
Battery Types s
1. Wet charged batteries

Require special attention during storage
periods.Even though the battery is not in use,
reaction between the electrolyte and the plate
material cause the battery to slowly discharge.
Wet charged batteries should be stored in cool
dry place and brought to full charge every 30
days by charging at a slow rate. The electrolyte
level must also checked at charging time
Wet charged batteries contain electrolyte. They

must be recharged while in storage
393
Batter
y Basic
s
2. Dry charged batteries
Require no special storage and do not

require periodic charging. Dry charged
batteries are activated by adding electrolyte
just before being put into service.
Dry charged batteries are activated by

adding electrolyte just before they are put
into service
394
Batter
y Basic
CONVENTIONAL BATTERIES s
Until the last decade, conventional batteries

dominated the automotive market. However in
the last ten years, low maintenance and
maintenance batteries have steadily gained
popularity. Conventional batteries provide good
performance in deep cycling application. Deep
cycling occurs when a battery goes from fully
charged to a low state of charge, and then is
fully recharged during system operation
Conventional batteries have good deep cycle

performance 395
Batter
y Basic
CONVENTIONAL BATTERIES REQUIRE s MORE
MAINTENANCE THAN LOW MAINTENANCE OR
MAINTENANCE FREE
BATTERIES
Due to chemical composition of the plates the water

in the electrolyte gasifies and must be periodically
replenished. This gasification can cause the
electrolyte to condense on the top of the battery
case and cause the battery to discharge by providing
a current path between the positive and negative
terminals. It also causes corrosion of the terminals
and cable connections.
Conventional batteries are more prone to over
charging than low maintenance free batteries. They
396
Batter
y Basic
LOW MAINTENANCE BATTERIES s
Low maintenance batteries are designed to
reduce required maintenance intervals. Because
of their construction, less electrolyte level is
reduced much more slowly than conventional
batteries. Corrosion of battery terminals and
cables is also reduced. They are also much more
resistant to overcharging than conventional
batteries. Low maintenance batteries however
have a shorter life in deep cycle applications
than conventional batteries
Low maintenance batteries require less

maintenance than conventional batteries 397
Batter
y Basic
s
MAINTENANCE FREE BATTERIES
Maintenance free batteries are designed to

require no electrolyte replenishment under
normal operating conditions. Due to greatly
reduced gasification and water loss, terminal and
cable corrosion is minimized. They also retain
their charge longer than conventional or low
maintenance batteries when stored in a wet
charged state
Maintenance free batteries are designed to

require very little maintenance
398
Batter
y Basic
s
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Gasification of the
electrolyte during the
discharge cycle.
ConventionalLong deep
batteries cycle life Faster self discharge
than low maintenance
or maintenance free
batteries when stored
in a wet charged state
399
Batter
y Basic
s
More prone to over-

charging damage
Conventional
Long deep cycle than low
batteries life maintenance or
maintenance free
batteries
400
Batter
y Basic
s
Low gasifiction rate

resulting reduced
Low maintenance Reduced deep
maintenance cycle life
batteries Less prone to over-
charging problems
than conventional
batteries
401
Batter
y Basic
s
Slower self-discharge Reduced deep

Low
than conventional cycle life
maintenance
batteries when stored
batteries
in a wet-charged state
402
Batter
y Basic
s
Negligible
gasification
of electrolyte
Maintenanc resulting Reduced deep
e in no electrolyte cycle life
free maintenance under
batteries normal operating
condition
Less prone to
damage
due to over 403
Batter
y Basic
s
Slower self
discharge
Maintenanc rate than Reduced deep
e conventional cycle life
free or low maintenance
batteries batteries when
stored
in a wet charged
state
404
Batter
y
405
Batter
y
406
Batter
y Safety
Keep the battery level with the topside up at
all times
Avoid spilling or splashing the electrolyte
Always wear eye protection and rubber gloves

when handling batteries
Work in a well- ventilated area
No smoking, avoid sparks open flames and

contact between the terminals with tools
Do not charge a frozen battery it can explode

warm to 60 0 F (15.5 0 C) before putting on a
charger 407
Batter
y Safety
408
Batter
y
409
Batter
y
410
Batter
y
411
Batter
y
412
Batter
y
413
Batter
y
414
Batter
y Ratin
BATTERY RATINGS g
Storage batteries are given three important

ratings. They are
1. The Cold Cranking Amps rating
2. The Reserve Capacity rating
3. The BCI dimensional group number
415
Batter
y Ratin
g
416
Batter
y Ratin
COLD CRANKING AMPS RATING g
The Cold Cranking Amps rating, abbreviated CCA is the mos
important rating in regard to battery performance. It is the
load in amperes that a battery can sustain for 30 seconds a
(-17.8 C) and not fall below 1.2 volts per cell, or 7.2 volts on
12 volt battery.The CCA rating indicates how much power a
battery can deliver in extremely cold condition
Because the batterys primary job is starting operation, it is

important that it contain sufficient power to accomplish the
Battery power vs Temperature relation as the temperature d
so does the battery power hence the engine requires much
power to start in colder temperatures
CCA= Cold Cranking Amps rating- indicates battery power
under extreme condition
417
Batter
y
418
Batter
y Ratin
RESERVE CAPACITY RATING g
The Reserve Capacity rating indicates the number of

minutes a new fully charged battery at 80 F (26.6 C)
can sustain a load of 25 amperes before the battery
voltage drops to 1.75 volts per cell or 10.5 volts for a
12 volt battery
This rating was devised for automotive industry. It

indicates the amount of time the battery can provide
power needed for ignition, head and tail lights, wind
shield wipers and heater if the charging system fails
Reserve capacity = Battery capacity if the charging

system fails 419
Batter
y
420
Batter
y Ratin
BCI (BATTERY COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL) g
Group Dimensional Number
This number indicates a battery physical dimensions.
For instance, a Group 31 battery is always 13.0 in. long
, 6.8 in. wide and 9.4 in. high. The BCI group number
does not indicate a batterys performance capability, it
only indicates physical size. A Group 31 battery could
have a CCA rating of 475, 580 or even 680, but its
dimensions will always be of those mentioned above
The performance characteristics of a battery are
determined by the internal components such as the
number of plates per cell, not its physical size
BCI Group number = Battery physical dimensions
421
Batter
y
422
Batter
yTestin
g
HYDROMETER TEST
A hydrometer is a test
instrument used to check a
batterys state of charge.
The battery electrolyte is
composed of sulphuric acid
and water. When each cell is
fully charged, the
electrolyte is at full
strength. When the cell is
discharged, there is less
acid in the electrolyte 423
Batter
yTestin
g
A hydrometer measures the
specific gravity(SG) of a
liquid. Water has a SG of Charged Discharged
1.00. Sulfuric acid has an SG
of 1.835. When a cell is fully
charged, the electrolyte is
approximately 65% water
and 35% acid. The specific
gravity of a fully charged
electrolyte is 1.265 at 80
F(26.7C)
424
Batter
The SG of the electrolyte varies with
yTestin
temperature . g
Temperature compensate the reading by Electrolyte
% of
adding 0.004 to the SG for every 10 F Specific
(5.5C) above 80 F(26.7 C).Subtract charge
gravity
0.004 from the SG for every 10 F (5.5C)
below 80 F(26.7C). 1260 100
Use the table to compare SG and a
batterys 1230 75
state of charge. Recharge a battery
when 1200 50
its capacity has dropped to 75 %
1100 0
A difference of more than 0.050 points
between individual cells
indicates a defective battery. This
unequal consumption of electrolyte is 425
usually due to an internal defect or
Batter
yTestin
Electrolyte Specific g
Freeze Point
Gravity
1260 -71.3 F (-57.3 C)
1250 -62 F (-52.3 C)
1230 -16 F (-26.7 C)
1200 -0 (-17.8 C)
1100 -19 (-7.3 C)
The electrolyte condition also determines when a
battery will freeze. The table to the top shows the
importance of the state of charge of the battery in
cold weather. 426
Batter
y
427
Batter
y
428
Batter
y
429
Batter
y
430
Batter
y
431
Batter
y
432
Batter
y
433
Batter
y
434
Batter
y
435
Batter
y
436
Batter
y
437
Batter
y
438
Batter
y
439
Batter
y
440
Batter
y
441
Batter
y
442
Batter
y
443
Batter
y
444
Batter
y
445
Batter
y
446
Batter
y
447
Batter
y
448
Batter
y
449
Batter
y
Jumpin
JUMP STARTING A UNIT g
To avoid bodily injury and damage to equipment,

follow proper safety procedures when jump
stating a vehicle.
Be certain the voltage systems are the same
Turn off both stalled and starting units
Cover batteries with a damp cloth
Always connect cables in the following

sequence 450
Batter
y
Jumpin
g
Stalled battery
3
Starting battery 1 2
1. Connect one end of the positive jumper cable
to positive(+) post of discharge battery. - + + -
2. Connect the other end of the cable to the
positive (+) post of the booster battery.
3. Connect the other end of the negative jumper -
4
cable to the negative(-) post of the booster
Chassis ground
battery
4. Connect the other end of the negative jumper
cable chassis ground of the stalled unit, away
from
the discharged battery. Do not connect the
jumper cable
to the negative(-) post of the discharged battery
5. Start the stalled unit. 451
Batter
y Car
BATTERY MAINTENANCE e
Conventional batteries typically require more
maintenance than low maintenance or maintenance
free batteries. However, all batteries should be
inspected periodically. Listed below are general on-
unit inspection procedures
BATTERY EXTERIOR
Check for loose or broken terminal posts
Check for cracked or broken containers and covers
Loose holddown ( battery clamp)
452
Replace the battery immediately if damage is visible
Batter
y Car
Check for corrosion, dirt and moisture
e
Clean the exterior with a baking soda and water
solution if necessary, and use a heavy brush to scrub
the terminals. Do not allow the soda solution to mix
with the battery electrolyte Always keep the battery as
dry as possible
BATTERY CABLES
Check battery cables. Loose or dirty connections

increase resistance to current flow. This causes poor
battery charging and system operation
Replace worn or frayed cables. Keep all connection

clean and tight 453
Batter
y Car
e
BATTERY ELECTROLYTE
Check the battery electrolyte level
Add water if the electrolyte level is below the top plate

DO NOT OVERFILL . Keep the electrolyte level below
vent cap openings
NOTE:Even maintenance free batteries should be checke

monthly, especially if the battery is operating in
extreme conditions, such as extremely hot weath
454
Batter
y Car
BATTERY STORAGE e
All wet charged batteries slowly self- discharge while

in storage
The rate of discharge depends on battery type and
storage
conditions. All batteries should be stored in a clean,
cool and
dry location and tested periodically.Ideal storage
temperatures are between 50 and 60 F (10.0 and 15.6
C).
Check a stored batterys state of charge every 30-45

days.
Recharge it whenever capacity has dropped to 75%.
455
Batter
y
456
Batter
y
457
Battery
Charging
Portable
Constant
Potential Battery
Charger
458
Battery
Constant Current Charging
Charging
Method
In the constant current method, the battery is
connected to a charging device that supplies a
steady
flow of DC current.
A rheostat is built into the charger to
adjust the current flow, and once the rheostat is
set, the current remains constant.
When using this method of charging a battery,
check the battery frequently, particularly near
the end of the charging period.
When the battery is gassing freely and the
specific gravity remains constant for 2 hours,
the battery is fully charged.
459
Battery
The term gassing refers to a condition that
Constant
occurs while Current
the battery Charging
Charging
is being charged.
Method
When a battery is being charged, a portion of
the energy breaks down the water in the
electrolyte. Hydrogen is released at the
negative plates and oxygen at the positive
plates.
These gases bubble up through the electrolyte
and
collect in the air space at the top of the cell.
If violent gassing occurs when the battery is
first placed on charge, the charging rate is too
high.
If the rate is not too high, steady gassing
develops as the charging proceeds, indicating
that the battery is nearing a fully charged 460
Battery
WARNINGCharging
A mixture of hydrogen and air can be

dangerously explosive. No smoking, electric
sparks, or open flames should be permitted near
charging batteries.
The main disadvantage of constant current

charging is that if the charging current is set too
high, or if the battery is overcharged, the battery
can overheat and possibly damage the plates.
461
Battery
Constant potential charging Charging
Constant Potential is done by a
(Voltage)
motor-generator set or a transformer-
Charging
rectifier.
With constant potential charging, the initial
current flow to a discharged battery is high
because of the difference between the
battery voltage and the output voltage of the
charger.
As the state of charge of the battery
increases, its voltage increases, reducing the
difference in voltages between the charger
and the battery.
This decreasing voltage differential causes
the charging current to gradually taper off to
a very low value at the time the battery is 462
Battery
Constant potential Charging
chargers are available in
many
designs and capacities
both stationary and
portable.
The one shown in figure
6-11 is portable.
Constant
potential chargers are
common in support
equipment
work centers.
463
Battery
Charging
Charging
Procedure
1. With the battery out of the vehicle, clean
and
inspect it thoroughly.
Remove any corrosion present by using a
solution of bicarbonate of soda and water.
(Ensure that none of the solution enters the
cells.)
Check the case of the battery for cracks and
breaks.
464
Battery
2. Remove the vent caps and inspect the
Charging
Charging
battery
Procedure
internally.
If the electrolyte level is low, add distilled
water (or drinking water if distilled water is
not
available).
Bring the level of the electrolyte to about
three-eighths of an inch above the plates or
to the level
specified by the battery manufacturer.
Place the vent caps in the cell openings, but
do not tighten them down.
(The vent caps keep electrolyte from spraying
out of the cells during charging and keep 465
Battery
Charging
Charging
Procedure
3. Connect the battery to the charger.
Ensure that the positive cable is connected to
the positive terminal and the negative cable
is connected to the negative terminal.
Turn the charger on.
4. When the battery is fully charged, the

charger
will shut off.
Remove the battery cables, tighten down the
vent caps, and place the battery in storage or
back in
service.
466
Battery
Charging
Charging
Procedure
WARNING
Always connect the battery to the charger

before turning on the charger, and
disconnect the
battery only after turning off the charger.
This is to preclude the possibility of creating
a spark, which could cause an explosion.
467
Battery
Charging
Charging
Take frequent hydrometerProcedure
and temperature
readings of each cell and record them.
The specific gravity can be expected to rise
during the charge.
If the specific gravity does not rise, the
battery is bad and should be disposed of.
Keep a constant watch for excessive gassing.
This is especially important when you use the
constant current method of charging.
Be especially watchful at the very beginning of
the charge when you use the constant voltage
method. Reduce the charging current or
voltage if excessive gassing takes place.
468
Battery
SELF-DISCHARGE Charging
Charging
Procedure
Discharge takes place in batteries even when
they
are not in use.
The rate of discharge varies with temperature
and specific gravity of the electrolyte.
Self-discharge changes the specific gravity of
the
electrolyte just as normal discharge does.
Inactive, charged batteries should be stowed in
a cool, dry place to reduce self-discharge.
After a battery has been activated, the state of
charge should be checked periodically (whether
in use or not) and recharged when necessary.469
Battery
Charging
Charging
Procedure
A battery is damaged if it is allowed to
remain in a discharged condition. A good charge
especially important in cold weather to prevent
freezing. A battery that is completely discharged
freezes at about 18F; a battery that has a specifi
gravity of 1.260 freezes at about -75F.
470
Battery
Charging
Charging
Procedure
PLACING IN SERVICE
New batteries may be received full of
electrolyte
and fully charged.
In this case, all that is necessary to make them
ready for service is to properly install them
in the equipment.
Most batteries, however, are received dry
and charged.
471
Battery
PLACING IN SERVICE Charging
Charging
Procedure
Dry-charged batteries retain their state of full
charge indefinitely so long as moisture is not
allowed to enter the cells.
Therefore, dry-charged batteries should be
stowed in a cool, dry place.
When moisture and air enter the cells, it
causes the negative plates to oxidize and lose
their charge.
If dry-charged batteries are allowed to stay in
this condition for a long period of time,
damage results. Dry-charged batteries must
be activated and recharged before you place
them in service.
472
Battery
Charging
Charging
ACTIVATING A DRY-CHARGED BATTERY
Procedure
To activate a dry-charged battery, remove the
vent
restrictors from the vent caps and remove the
vent caps.
Fill all the cells to the proper level with
electrolyte that
has a specific gravity of 1.275 or as specified by
the
battery manufacturer.
Best results are obtained when the battery and
the electrolyte are at a temperature between
60F and 80F, but in no case should the
temperature of the electrolyte exceed 90F.
473
Battery
Charging
Charging
Procedure
Some gassing occurs while filling the battery,
due to the release of carbon dioxide (a product
of the drying
process) or hydrogen sulfide (caused by the
presence of free sulfur).
These gases and odors are normal and are no
cause for alarm.
474
Battery
Charging
Charging
Allow the battery to stand Procedure
for at least 1 hour
after
filling it with electrolyte.
If at the end of 1 hour the level of electrolyte
has fallen, add more electrolyte to restore
it, and replace the vent caps.
If electrolyte is spilled on the battery, it should
be removed.
Use a solution of bicarbonate of soda and water,
and be careful not to allow the solution to get
into the cells.
The exterior of the battery should then be
flushed with fresh water.
475
Battery
INITIAL CHARGE
Charging
Charging
Procedure
A new battery should be given an initial
charge in
accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions.
In the absence of instructions, the initial
charge should be given at the rate of 1 ampere
per positive plate per cell.
Charging should continue until the specific
gravity of
all cells shows no increase over a period of 2
hours. If the temperature of the battery
exceeds 100F, stop the charge and allow the
battery to cool.
476
Battery
Charging
Charging
ADJUSTING SPECIFIC GRAVITYProcedure
Usually, no adjustment of the specific gravity

is
necessary.
However, if the specific gravity should exceed
1.300 in any cell, it should be reduced to some
level between 1.275 and 1.300.
You can reduce the specific gravity by
removing a small amount of electrolyte with a
hydrometer syringe and replacing it with
distilled or drinking water.
477
Battery
SAFE HANDLING OF ELECTROLYTE Charging
Electrolyte
Although a premixed electrolyteSafety
is usually
available for servicing dry-charged batteries,
you may
be required to use concentrated sulfuric acid.
If so, the sulfuric acid must be mixed with
pure water to obtain the proper specific
gravity for electrolyte.
Mixing electrolyte is dangerous. Concentrated
sulfuric acid can burn clothing, and if it comes
into contact with your skin or eyes, severe
burns may result.
You must observe the following safety
precautions when working with concentrated
sulfuric acid or electrolyte. 478
Battery
Charging
Electrolyte
Wear approved goggles, gloves, aprons,
and boots. Safety
Use a lead-lined tank or a heavy plastic
container to mix the electrolyte.
Do not use materials such as glass &
earthenware because they may crack due to
the heat generated during the mixing
operation
Always pour acid into water slowly, stirring
constantly but gently.
Never pour water into concentrated acid.
The resulting chemical reaction will generate
heat so rapidly that the solution may boil and
splash out of the container.
479
Battery
Be alert for sprays and splashes when you
open a Charging
Electrolyte
container or during mixing. Safety
If acid spills, neutralize it with bicarbonate of
soda or ammonia and flush with an abundance
of water.
If acid is spilled or splashed on any part of
your
body, neutralize it with a solution of
bicarbonate of
soda and water or ammonia and water.
Immediately shower or flush the affected
areas with large amounts of water.
Should your eyes be affected, flush with an
abundance of fresh water and seek medical
attention immediately. 480
Battery
Ensure that an adequate supply of first aid
Charging
Electrolyte
material is on hand at all times for neutralizing
Safety
acid.
Do not carry electrolyte in open-top containers,
and ensure that glass containers are protected
against
breakage.
Never allow containers of electrolyte to be
placed near heating pipes or to stand in the sun
for any length of time.
Allow mixed electrolyte to cool to room
temperature before adding it to battery cells.
Do not add electrolyte to the battery if its
temperature is above90F.
Hot electrolyte can destroy the cell plates very
481
Battery
Charging
Electrolyte
Safety
WARNING
After you fill the battery cells, allow the
electrolyte to cool again.
Remember that more heat is generated by
its contact with the battery plates.
482
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
A wiring diagram is an electrical
schematic that shows a
representation of actual
electrical or electronic
components (by use of symbols)
and the wiring of the vehicles
electrical systems.
483
Electrical
One of the most important tools for diagnosing
Circuitry
Trouble
and repairing electrical problems is a wiring
Shooting
diagram.
These diagrams identify the wires and
connectors from each circuit on a vehicle.
They also show where different circuits are
interconnected, where they receive their power,
where the ground is located, and the colors of
the different wires.
All of this information is critical to proper
diagnosis of electrical problems.
Some wiring diagrams also give additional
information that helps you understand how a
circuit operates and how to identify certain
components.
Wiring diagrams do not explain how the circuit
works 484
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
This is where your knowledge of electricity
Shooting
comes in handy.
A wiring diagram can show the wiring of the
entire vehicle or a single circuit
These single circuit diagrams are also called
block diagrams.
Wiring diagrams of the entire vehicle tend to
look more complex and threatening than block
diagrams.
However, once you simplify the diagram to only
those wires, connectors, and components
that belong to an individual circuit, they become
less complex and more valuable.
Wiring diagrams show the wires, connections to
switches and other components.
485
Electrical
Circuitry
Often overlooked, but very important to the electrical
Trouble
system, are proper wire protection devices
Shooting
These devices prevent damage to the wiring by
maintaining proper wire routing and retention. Special
clips, retainers, straps, and supplementary insulators
provide additional protection to the conductor over
what the insulation itself is capable of providing.
Whenever the technician must remove one of these
devices to perform a repair, it is important that the
device be reinstalled to prevent additional electrical
problems.
Whenever it is necessary to install additional electrical
accessories, try to support the primary wire in at least
1-foot intervals. If the wire must be routed through the
frame or body, use rubber grommets to protect the
wire. 486
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
487
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Remember that electrical circuits need a complete
Shooting
path in order to work.
A wiring diagram shows the insulated side of the
circuit and the point of ground.
Also, when lines (or wires) cross on a wiring
diagram, this does not mean they connect. If wires
are connected,
there will be a connector or a dot at the point
where they cross.
Most wiring diagrams do not show the location of
the wires, connectors, or components in the
vehicle.
488
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
Most of the primary wiring conductors used in
the machines and automobiles are made of
several strands of copper wire wound
together and covered with a polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) insulation.
Stranded wire is used because of its flexibility
and current flows on the surface of the
conductors.
Because there is more surface area exposed
in a stranded wire, there is less resistance in
the stranded wire than in the solid wire
489
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
There are three major factors that determine the
proper size of wire to be used:
(1) The wire must be large enough diameter
for the length requiredto carry the necessary
current for the load components in the circuit to
operate properly.
(2) The wire must be able to withstand the
anticipated vibration.
(3) The wire must be able to withstand the
anticipated amount of heat exposure.
490
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
Todays vehicles have a vast amount of
electrical wiring that, if laid end to end,
could stretch for
half a mile or more. You must be proficient
at reading wiring diagrams in order to sort
though this great maze of wires.
Trying to locate the cause of an electrical
problem can be quite difficult if you do not
have a good understanding of wiring
systems and diagrams.
491
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
You have to learn how wiring harnesses Shooting
are made,
how to read the wiring diagram, how to interpret the
symbols used, and how terminals are used.
This will reduce the amount of confusion you may
experience when repairing an electrical circuit.
It is also important to understand how to determine
the correct type and size of wire to carry the
anticipated amount of current.
It is possible to cause an electrical problem by simply
using the wrong gauge size of wire.
You must understand the three factors that cause
resistance in a wirelength, diameter, and
temperatureto perform repairs correctly.
492
Cable Ampacity Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Ampacity is the maximum current (in
amperes) Shooting
that a conductor can continuously carry
without
exceeding the insulations continuous
operating
temperature.
In short, it is the cables ampere capacity.
All electrical conductors have some resistance
to
the flow of electrical current.
The resistance of a cable increases as the
cross-sectional area or gauge decreases.
Conversely, cables with a larger cross section
have less resistance and thus, a higher 493
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Cable Ampacity Shooting
The current in a cable can cause the cable to heat

up due to the conductors (copper) resistance.
When current increases to a level high enough to
raise the internal conductor temperature to a poin
that exceeds the maximum temperature rating of
the cable, the insulation begins to degrade.
If the circuit does not include an electrical device
limit the current so that it does not exceed the
Ampacity of the cable, the cable must be sized so
that it is protected by the circuit protection eleme
494
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
Primary wiring is the term used for conductors
that carry low voltage.
The insulation of primary wires is usually thin.
Primary wiring refers to smaller wire with light
insulation
Secondary wiring refers to wires used to carry
high voltage, such as ignition spark plug wires.
Secondary wires have extra thick insulation.
Secondary wire refers to larger wire or cable
with heavier insulation
495
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
496
Electrical
Circuitry
Stranded wire is used because Trouble
it is very
flexible and has less resistanceShooting
than solid wire.
This is because electrons tend to flow on the
outside surface of conductors. Since there is
more surface area exposed in a stranded wire
(each strand has its own surface), there is less
resistance in the stranded wire than in the
solid wire.
The PVC insulation is used because it can
withstand temperature extremes and
corrosion.
PVC insulation is also capable of withstanding
battery acid, antifreeze, and gasoline. The
insulation protects the wire from shorting to
ground and from corrosion. 497
Electrical
A ballast resistor is used byCircuitry
some
Trouble
manufacturers to protect the ignition primary
Shooting
circuit from excessive voltage. It reduces the
current flow through the coils primary
windings and provides a stable voltage to the
coil. Some automobiles use a resistance wire in
the ignition system instead of a ballast resistor.
This wire is called the ballast resistor wire and
is located between the ignition switch and the
ignition coil (Figure 4-3) in the ignition RUN
circuit.
Spark plug wires are also resistance wires.
The resistance lowers the current flow through
the wires. By keeping current flow low, the
magnetic field created around the wires is kept
498
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
499
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
An additional amount of consideration must be
given for some margin of safety when selecting
wire size. There are three major factors that
determine the proper size of wire to be used:
1. The wire must have a large enough diameter,
for the length required, to carry the necessary
current for the load components in the circuit
to operate properly.
2. The wire must be able to withstand the
anticipated vibration.
3. The wire must be able to withstand the
anticipated amount of heat exposure.
500
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Wire size is based on the diameter of the
conductor. Shooting
The larger the diameter, the less the resistance.
There are two common size standards used to
designate wire size:
American Wire Gauge (AWG) and Metric.
The AWG standard assigns a gauge number to
the wire based on its diameter. The higher the
number, the smaller the wire diameter. For
example, 20-gauge wire is smaller in diameter
than 10-gauge wire. Most electrical systems in
the automobile use 14-, 16-, or 18-gauge wire.
Some high current circuits will also use 10- or 12-
gauge wire. Most battery cables are 2-, 4-, or
6-gauge cable. 501
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Both wire diameter and wire length affect
Shooting
resistance. Sixteen-gauge wire is capable of
conducting 20 amperes for 10 feet with
minimal voltage drop. However, if the current is
to be carried for 15 feet, 14-gauge wire would
be required.
If 20 amperes were required to be carried for
20 feet, then 12-gauge wire would be required.
The additional wire size is needed to prevent
voltage drops in the wire.
The illustration (Figure 4-6) lists the wire size
required to carry a given amount of current for
different lengths.
502
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
503
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
504
Electrical
To perform the function of connecting
Circuitrythe wires
Trouble
from the voltage source to the load component
Shooting
reliably, terminal connections are used.
Todays vehicles can have as many as 500
separate
circuit connections. The terminals used to make
these connections must be able to perform with
very low voltage drop. Terminals are constructed
of either brass or steel. Steel terminals usually
have a tin or lead coating. A loose or corroded
connection can cause an unwanted voltage drop
that results in poor operation of the load
component. For example, a connector used in a
light circuit that has as little as 10% voltage
drop (1.2V) may result in a 30% loss of lighting505
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
Terminals can be either crimped or soldered to
the conductor.
The terminal makes the electrical connection
and it must be capable of withstanding the
stress of normal vibration.
The next slide shows several different types of
terminals used in the automotive electrical
system.
In addition, the following connectors are used
on the automobile:
506
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
1. Molded connector:
These connectors usually have one to four
wires that are molded into a one-piece
component
Although the connector halves are separate,
the connector itself cannot be taken apart.
2. Multiple-wire hard-shell connector:
These connectors usually have a hard plastic
shell that holds the connecting terminals of
separate wires .The wire terminals can be
removed from the shell to be repaired.
507
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
3. Bulkhead connectors:
These connectors are used when several
wires must pass through the bulkhead .
4. Weather-Pack Connectors:
These connectors have rubber seals on the
terminal ends and on the covers of the
connector half .
They are used on computer circuits to
protect the circuit from corrosion, which
may result in a voltage drop.
508
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
509
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
510
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
5. Metri-Pack Connectors: Shooting
These are like the weather-pack connectors
but do not have the seal on the cover half
6. Heat Shrink Covered Butt Connectors:
Recommended for air bag applications by
some manufacturers.
Other manufacturers allow NO repairs to
the circuitry, while still others require
silver-soldered connections.
To reduce the number of connectors in the electrical
system, a common connection can be used. If there are
several electrical components that are physically close
to each other, a single common connection (splice)
eliminates using a separate connector for each wire.
511
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
512
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
513
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
514
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
515
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
516
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
517
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
518
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
519
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
520
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
521
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
Bulkhead Weather-pack connector Metri-pack

connector is used to prevent connector
connector corrosion.
522
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Most manufacturers use wiring harnesses to
Shooting
reduce the amount of loose wires hanging
under
the hood or dash of an automobile.
The wire harness provides for a safe path for
the wires of the vehicles lighting, engine, and
accessory components.
The wiring harness is made by grouping
insulated wires and wrapping them together.
The wires are bundled into separate harness
assemblies that are joined together by
connector plugs.
The multiple-pin connector plug may have
more than 60 individual wire terminals.
523
Electrical
Circuitry
There are several complex wiring harnesses in
Trouble
a vehicle, in addition to the simple harnesses.
Shooting
The engine compartment harness and the
under dash harness are examples of complex
harnesses.
Lighting circuits usually use a more simple
harness.
A complex harness serves many circuits.
The simple harness services only a few
circuits.
Some individual circuit wires may branch out
of a complex harness to other areas of the
vehicle.
Most wiring harnesses now use a flexible
conduit to provide for quick wire installation
524
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
The wiring harness is a number of insulated
wires
grouped together.
They may be braid covered or secured in a
nonmetallic tape. The wiring harness should be
securely mounted to prevent chafing, loosening
of wire terminals, and breakage due to
vibration.
The wires are color-coded or numbered and cut
to the proper lengths to make connections with
various electrical components.
525
Electrical
Circuitry
Make certain the ground returnTrouble
connections
made Shooting
to the chassis frame or engine are clean and
tight.
Where the engine or body is mounted on
rubber or other insulating material, use
flexible bonding wires to connect the parts
together.
Pay particular attention to these areas
because rust or corrosion may form at these
connections, preventing the flow of current
in the circuits even though the screws or
bolts are tight.
526
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
Almost all of the electrical and electronic
circuits
you work with are grounded.
This means that one leg of the circuit is
connected to a common conductor, such as a
structural member (frame) of the equipment.
When the grounded leg of the circuit is
connected to a good electrical conductor, this
conductor may serve as one leg of the circuit.
No separate conductor is needed for this leg
of the circuit.
527
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
A grounded circuit has advantages since it
reduces overall weight by using fewer
conductors. This results in a reduction in
cost and space requirements.
Other advantages are that troubleshooting
is simplified to some extent and the
impedance of the ground return path is
lower than that of a wire conductor.
The grounded system also has
disadvantages. Short circuits result when a
bare spot on any ungrounded conductor
touches ground.
528
Electrical
The term ungrounded system means that the
Circuitry
Trouble
circuit
Shooting
is in no way connected to ground.
All conductors are run from the power source to
the loads.
Circuits of this type are often referred to as
being above ground.
The ungrounded system has a number of
advantages.
It prevents one circuit from feeding into
another.
No malfunction of equipment occurs should one
conductor become accidentally grounded.
The circuits are completely insulated from each
other.
529
Electrical
Circuitry
Trouble
Shooting
The system has the disadvantage of adding

more weight because it requires more
conductors than the grounded system.
This results in added cost and space
requirements.
Questions ?
530

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BOBCAT SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM

Electricity is based on a theory- an

ELECTRICITY: It is flow of electrons from one point

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL:Potential at a point in

ELECTRIC CURRENT:Consists of electric charges

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: Potential difference

VOLT: Unit of potential difference

DIRECTION OF FLOW OF ELECTRIC CURRENT: It is

AMMETER: is an instrument that is used to measure

VOLT METER: Is a instrument that is used to

Electrons in the outer band can become free of their

A conductor is any material that

A conductor can be thought of as a chain of

An electric cable is one example of how conductors

1. List the three basic elements of an atom and

4. Which of the following materials are good

1) electron (-), proton (+), neutron (neutral);

Elements are often identified by the number of

Atoms in a simple system seek equilibrium,

Electrons in the outer band of an atom are easily

Unlike Charges Attract Like Charges Repel

Electricity is the flow of free electrons in a conductor

The following chart reflects special prefixes that are us

Prefix Symbol Decimal

Some authorities distinguish between electron flow

The following chart reflects special prefixes that are

The following chart reflects special prefixes that are

Prefix Symbol Decima

Voltage is pressure or the push that

Current is the flow of the electrons

Resistance is the opposition

A VOLTMETER measures the

1. Elements are identified by the number of

2. A material that has an excess of electrons is said

3. A material that has a deficiency of electrons is

4. Like charges ____________ and unlike charges

5. The force that is applied to a conductor to cause

6. Electrons move from:

7. With an increase of length or a decrease of

In the above circuit a battery provides the voltage

It is the resistance of a conductor when a

OHMS LAW : It states , The current passing

Mathematically it can be stated as

Volts, amperes and ohms are

RESISTANCE (R) : It is the property of a material

Using the simple circuit above, assuming that the

To find how much current is flowing through the

MIXED ARRANGEMENT: In such an arrangement

SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY: It is the

Using the simple circuit above, assuming that the

To find how much current is flowing through the

Remember to use the correct decimal equivalent

RESISTANCE IN SERIES: In this type of arrangement

The values of resistance add in a series circuit. If a 4

RT = 11000 + 2000 + 2000 + 100 + 1000

The equation for total resistance in a series circuit

Voltage can be measured across each of the resistors

RT = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 6

Second solve for current: I = E , I = 12 volts , I =

Third solve for voltage across any resistor:

If voltage were measured across any single resistor,

It is often desirable to use a voltage potential that

The desired voltage is represented by Eout which