By

Dr. Jamal Saleh Yassin

Fluid mechanics is a subject in which
many rather complicated phenomena
are encountered, so it is important that
we understand some of the
descriptions and simplications of
several special uid ows.

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A dependent variable in our study of uids
depends, in general, on the three space
coordinates and time, i.e., V(x, y, z, t). The
ow that depends on three space coordinates
is a three-dimensional ow; it could be a
steady ow if time is not involved, such as
would be the case in the ow near the
intersection of a wing and the fuselage of an
aircraft ying at a constant speed. The ow
in a washing machine would be an unsteady,
three-dimensional ow.
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 One-dimensional ows are ows in which the
velocity depends on only one space variable.
Developed ows; where the velocity proles do not
change with respect to the downstream coordinate.

One-dimensional ow: (a) ow in a pipe and (b) ow

in a wide channel.

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In the uniform ow, as shown in the Fig.; the
velocity prole, and other properties such as
pressure, is uniform across the section of pipe.
This prole is often assumed in pipe and
channel ow problems since it approximates
the more common turbulent ow so well.

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In an inviscid ow the effects of viscosity can
be completely neglected with no signicant
effects on the solution to a problem. All
uids have viscosity and if the viscous effects
cannot be neglected, it is a viscous ow.
Viscous effects are very important in pipe
ows and many other kinds of ows inside
conduits; they lead to losses and require
pumps in long pipelines. But, there are ows
in which we can neglect the inuence of
viscosity.
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Consider an external ow, ow external to a body,
such as the ow around an airfoil or a hydrofoil, as
shown in Fig. If the airfoil is moving relatively fast
(faster than about 1 m/s), the ow away from a thin
layer near the boundary, a boundary layer, can be
assumed to have zero viscosity with no signicant
effect on the solution to the ow eld (the velocity,
pressure, temperature elds).

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All the viscous effects are concentrated inside
the boundary layer and cause the velocity to be
zero at the surface of the airfoil, the no-slip
condition. Since inviscid ows are easier to
solve than viscous ows, the recognition that
the viscosity can be ignored in the ow away
from the surface leads to much simpler
solutions.

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A viscous ow is either a laminar ow or a turbulent
ow. In a turbulent ow there is mixing of uid
particles so that the motion of a given particle is
random and very irregular; statistical averages are
used to specify the velocity, the pressure, and other
quantities of interest. Such an average may be
steady in that it is independent of time, or the
average may be unsteady and depend on time. The
following figure shows steady and unsteady
turbulent ows. Notice the noisy turbulent ow from
a faucet When you get a drink of water.

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10
11
In a laminar ow there is negligible mixing of uid
particles; the motion is smooth and noiseless, like
the slow ow of water from a faucet. If a dye is
injected into a laminar ow, it remains distinct for a
relatively long period of time. The dye would be
immediately diffused if the ow were turbulent.
Figure shows a steady and an unsteady laminar ow.

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U0

y
U

x d
 Dimensionless numbers involved Ul U U
Re Ma Fr
c gl
for external flow: Re>100 dominated by inertia, Re<1 by
viscosity
Character of the steady, viscous
flow past a circular cylinder:
(a) low Reynolds number flow, (b)
moderate Reynolds number flow,
(c) large Reynolds number flow.
 Far from the surface, the fluid
velocity is unaffected.
In a thin region near the
surface, the velocity is reduced

Which is the most correct

velocity profile?

this is a good
approximation near
the front of the
plate
 Hydrodynamic boundary layer
One of the most important concepts in understanding the external flows
is the boundary layer development. For simplicity, we are going to
analyze a boundary layer flow over a flat plate with no curvature and no
external pressure variation.

U U
U U
Dye streak

laminar turbulent
transition
Boundary layer definition
Boundary layer thickness (d): defined as the distance away from the
surface where the local velocity reaches to 99% of the free-stream
velocity, that is u(y=d)=0.99U. Somewhat an easy to understand but
arbitrary definition.
Boundary layer is usually very thin: d/x usually << 1.
 The free stream velocity is u0, but next to
the plate, the flow is reduced by drag
Farther along the plate, the affect of the
drag is felt by more of the stream, and
because of this
The boundary layer grows
 At a certain point, viscous forces become to small
relative to inertial forces to damp fluctuations

The flow transitions to turbulence

Important parameters:
Viscosity , density UO x UO x
Distance, x Re x
Velocity UO
Reynolds number combines these into one number
 A practical outer edge of the boundary layer
is where u = uo x 99%

Across the boundary layer there is a velocity

gradient du/dy that we will use to determine
 The velocity profiles grow along the surface

What determines the growth rate and flow profile?

 (x)

Resistance of fluid to change in velocity due to viscous

forces depends on?
Velocity, UO UO x UO x
Viscosity,
Re x

Density,
Position, x
The Reynolds number
Blasius (1908) derived:

u y x x x
f d g g 5
d Re
UO x UO UO
 UO x UO x
Re x

 Drag on a flat plate is related to the momentum deficit
within the boundary layer

u u
D bU
2
b 1
0
U U
dD
b w bU 2
dx x
Drag and shear stress can be calculated just by
assuming some velocity profile in the boundary layer
 u u

y y
(x)

Shear stress

u UO y
f u UO


y x Re x d

y x Re x
y 0
0.332

3/2
u U
0.332 1/O2 1/ 2
y y 0 x

3/2
UO UO
y 0 0.332 0.332 Re X
x 1 / 2 1 / 2 x
 Separation starts with zero velocity gradient at the
wall

Flow reversal takes place beyond separation point

dP/dx >0
Adverse pressure gradient is necessary for
separation

There is no pressure change after separation So,

pressure in the separated region is constant.
Fluid in turbulent boundary layer has appreciably
more momentum than the flow of a laminar B.L.
Thus a turbulent B.L can penetrate further into an
adverse pressure gradient without separation
 Increased momentum transport due to turbulence from the free
stream flow to the flow near the wall makes turbulent boundary layers
more resistant to flow separation.
The photographs depict the flow over a strongly curved surface, where
there exists a strong adverse (positive) pressure gradient.
The boundary layer has a high momentum deficit.
In the case where the boundary layer is laminar, insufficient
momentum exchange takes, the flow is unable to adjust to the
increasing pressure and separates from the surface.
In case where the flow is turbulent, the increased transport of
momentum (due to the Reynolds stresses) from the free-stream to the
wall increases the streamwise momentum in the boundary layer. This
allows the flow to overcome the adverse pressure gradient. It
eventually does separate nevertheless, but much further downstream.

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 There is an increase in drag as a result of
separation as it prevents pressure recovery
There is low pressure in separated region and it
persists in the entire region.
Turbulent eddies formed due to separation can not
convert their rotational energy back into pressure
head. So there is no pressure recovery (increase).
The difference between high pressure at the front
and low pressure at rear increases the drag.
This increase in drag overshadows any increase in
lift due to increase in the angle of attack
 Streamlining reduces adverse pressure
gradient beyond the maximum thickness and
delays separation
Fluid particles lose kinetic energy near
separation point. So these are either removed
by suction or higher energy

High energy fluid is blown near separation

point
Roughening surface to force early transition to
turbulent boundary layer
 Just as flow separation can be understood in
terms of the combined effects of viscosity and
adverse pressure gradients, separated flows can
be reattached by the application of a suitable
modification to the boundary conditions.
In this example, suction is applied to the leading
edge of the airfoil at a sharp angle of attack,
removing the early separation zone, and moving
the separation point much farther downstream.

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 Influence of a
strong pressure
gradient on a
turbulent flow:
(a) a strong
negative
pressure
gradient may re-
laminarize a
flow; (b) a strong
positive pressure
gradient causes a
strong boundary
layer top thicken.
(Photograph by
R.E. Falco)
Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer
Separation then creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to
separation.

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 shear stress and pressure
integrated over the surface
of a body create force
drag: force component in
the direction of upstream
velocity
lift: force normal to
upstream velocity (might
have 2 components in
general case)
D
D dFx p cos dA w sin dA CD 1
2 U 2
A
L
L dFy p sin dA w cos dA CL 1
2 U 2
A
Flow very close to surface of
airfoil is influenced by
friction and is viscous
(boundary layer flow)
Stall (separation) is a
viscous phenomena.
Flow away from airfoil is not
influenced by friction and is
wholly inviscid.
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 Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within
boundary layer
1. B.L. either laminar or turbulent
2. All laminar B.L. turbulent B.L.
3. Turbulent B.L. fuller than laminar B.L., more resistant to separation
Separation creates another form of drag called pressure drag
due to separation
Dramatic loss of lift and increase in drag

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Lift

Angle of Attack, a
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d

d
Same total drag as airfoil

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 Boundary layer thickness

Boundary layer displacement thickness:d 1 u dy

*

0
U
Boundary layer momentum thickness (defined in terms of momentum
flux): 2
u u
bU b u U u dy b 1
0 0
U U
Incompressible Compressible
Y
u u x
YE
d 1 dy d 1 dy
* *

0 U 0
U
E E

Y
u u x
YE
u u

0
U
1 dy
U
0 EU E 1 x
UE
dy

Y
u u2 u x
YE
u x2
1 2 dy 1 2 dy
* *

0
U U 0
EU E UE

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 UO 0.027
2 U
2
0.455
y 0 y 0 O
ln2 Re
2 Re X1/ 7 2 X

O 0.027 O 0.455
cf cf
2
UO 2 Re X
1/ 7
UO 2
2
ln2 0.06 Re X

0.16 x
d 1/ 7
Re X
 Laminar Turbulent Induced
5x 0.16 x
1/ 7
0.37 x
1/ 5
Re X Re X Re X

0
2 2 2
U 0.664 U 0.455 U 0.058
O O 2 O
2 Re X 2
ln 0.06 Re X 2 Re L 1/ 5
O 0.664 0.455 0.058
cf
U O 2 ln 2 0.06 Re X
2 1/ 5
Re X Re X

1
BLUO *
2
L 1 2 1.33 2 1 2 0.074
BLUO BLUO
FS Bdx 2 Re L
2
0.523

1520

2 Re L
1/ 5

ln 0.06 Re L Re L
x 0

FS 1.33 0.523 1520

Cf 0.074
BLUO 2
2 Re L ln2 0.06 Re L Re L 1/ 5
Re L


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