CHAPTER 11: METAL ALLOYS

APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are metal alloys classified and how are they used?
What are some of the common fabrication techniques?
How do properties vary throughout a piece of material
that has been quenched, for example?
How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?

Chapter 11- 1
 TAXONOMY OF METALS
Metal Alloys

Adapted from
Ferrous Nonferrous
Fig. 11.1,
Callister 6e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4wt%C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5wt%C
3-4.5wt%C

T(C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite

cementite
1400 L
+L Adapted from Fig. 9.21,Callister
1200 1148C L+Fe3C 6e. (Fig. 9.21 adapted from
austenite Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd
Eutectic: ed.,
1000 4.30
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-
+Fe3C Chief), ASM International,
800 727C Fe 3CMaterials Park, OH, 1990.)
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.77 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
C o, wt% C Chapter 11-2
 STEELS
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C

heat austentitic
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 6e. Chapter 11-3
 Example
s:

2350
2550
4140
1060

Chapter 11-
ASMHandbookVol.1PropertiesandSelection:Irons,Steels,andHighPerformanceAlloys Chapter 11-
CommonCarbonandAlloy
Steels:

Chapter 11-
Tool Steel

AISISAEtoolsteelgrades[1]
Significant
Definingproperty AISISAEgrade
characteristics
Waterhardening W
O Oilhardening
Airhardening;medium
A
Coldworking alloy
Highcarbon;high
D
chromium
Shockresisting S
T Tungstenbase
Highspeed
M Molybdenumbase

H1H19:chromium
base
Hotworking H H20H39:tungstenbase
H40H59:molybdenum
base

Plasticmold P
L Lowalloy
Specialpurpose
F Carbontungsten

Chapter 11-
Chapter 11-
 NONFERROUS ALLOYS
Cu Alloys Al Alloys
Brass : Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear)
Cu-Be:
NonFerrous Mg Alloys
-very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missles
Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm3 Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 6e. Chapter 11-4
REFINEMENT OF STEEL FROM ORE
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2+C2CO
and iron ore 3CO+Fe 2O32Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO 3CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 +Al2O3slag

Chapter 11-5
 METAL FABRICATION METHODS-I

FORMING CASTING JOINING

Forging Rolling
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.7,
Drawing Extrusion Callister 6e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Chapter 11-6
 FORMING TEMPERATURE
Hot working Cold working
--recrystallization --more energy to deform
--less energy to deform --oxidation: good finish
--oxidation: poor finish --higher strength
--lower strength
Cold worked microstructures
--generally are very anisotropic!
--Forged --Swaged --Fracture resistant!

(a) (b) (c)

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (a) Fig. 10.5, p. 410 (micrograph courtesy of G.
Vander Voort, Car Tech Corp.); (b) Fig. 10.6(b), p. 411 (Orig. source: J.F. Peck and D.A. Thomas,
Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME, 1961, p. 1240); (c) Fig. 10.10, p. 415 (Orig. source: A.J. McEvily, Jr.
and R.H. Bush, Trans. ASM 55, 1962, p. 654.) Chapter 11-7
 METAL FABRICATION METHODS-II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

Sand Casting Die Casting
(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)

Sand Sand

molten metal
Continuous Casting
Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
molten
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster solidified
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Chapter 11- 8
METAL FABRICATION METHODS-III

FORMING CASTING JOINING

Powder Processing Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from
Fig. 11.8,
densify Callister 6e.
(Fig. 11.8 from
Heat affected zone: Iron Castings
point contact densification Handbook, C.F.
at low T by diffusion at
(region in which the Walton and T.J.
higher T microstructure has been Opar (Ed.),
1981.)
changed).
Chapter 11-9
 THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.

Stress Relief : Reduce Spheroidize (steels):

stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below E
T & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25h.
Full Anneal (steels):
Types of Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming by heating
to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
Process Anneal :
Negate effect of
cold working by Normalize (steels):
(recovery/ Deform steel withlarge
recrystallization) grains, then normalize
to make grains small.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 6e. Chapter 11-10

THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS - 2

Chapter 11-
 HARDENABILITY--STEELS
Ability to form martensite
Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
1
Adapted from Fig.
flat ground 11.10, Callister 6e. (Fig.
specimen 11.10 adapted from
(heated to 4 A.G. Guy, Essentials of
Materials Science,
phase field) McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York,
24C water 1978.)

Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

H a rd n e s s , H R C

Adapted from Fig.

11.11, Callister 6e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11-11
WHY HARDNESS CHANGES W/POSITION
The cooling rate varies with position.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(C) 0%
600 100%
Adapted from Fig. 11.12, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 11.12 adapted from H. Boyer
400 (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal
Transformation and Cooling
M(start) Transformation Diagrams, American
200 Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)
A M

0 M(finish)

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
Chapter 11-12
 HARDENABILITY VS ALLOY CONTENT
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (C/s)
Jominy end quench
60

H a rd n e s s , H R C
results, C = 0.4wt%C 100

4340 80 %M
50
40 4140
8640
Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 11.13 adapted from figure 5140
furnished courtesy Republic Steel 20
Corporation.) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

"Alloy Steels" 800

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(C) TE
600 shift from
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B A to B due
(0.2 to 2wt%) 400 to alloying
--these elements shift
the "nose". M(start)
200
--martensite is easier M(90%)
to form. 0 -1
10 10 103 105 Time (s)
Chapter 11-13
QUENCHING MEDIUM & GEOMETRY
Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air small small
oil moderate moderate
water large large
Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center small small
surface large large

Chapter 11-14
PREDICTING HARDNESS PROFILES
Ex: Round bar, 1040 steel, water quenched, 2"
diam. R R/2 center R = 54HRC
4
Bar
R/2 = 30HRC
Diameter (in)
center = 27HRC
2

00 0.5 1 effective distance

from quenched end (in)
Hardness, HRC 60

40
1040
20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2effective distance
HRC 60 from quenched end (in)

Hardness
40 profile

20 Adapted from Fig. 11.18, Callister 6e.

2 in.
Chapter 11-15
 PRECIPITATION HARDENING
Particles impede dislocations.
700
Ex: Al-Cu system T(C) L CuAl 2
Procedure: 600
--Pt A: solution heat treat
+L +L
A
(get solid solution) 500
--Pt B: quench to room temp.
400 C
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small crystals within 300
0 10 20 30 40 50
crystals. (Al) B wt%Cu
composition range
Other precipitation needed for precipitation hardening
systems: Adapted from Fig. 11.22, Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.22 adapted
Cu-Be Temp. from J.L. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5,
1985.)
Pt A (soln heat treat)
Cu-Sn
Mg-Al
Pt C (precipitate )

Adapted from Fig.

11.20, Callister 6e. Time
Pt B
Chapter 11-16
 PRECIPITATE EFFECT ON TS, %EL
2014 Al Alloy:
TS peaks with %EL reaches minimum
precipitation time. with precipitation time.
Increasing T
accelerates
process.
tensile strength (M Pa)

30

% E L (2 in s a m p le )
500
20
400
149C
10
300 204C 204C 149C

200 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo1yr
precipitation heat treat time (h) precipitation heat treat time (h)
Adapted from Fig. 11.25 (a) and (b), Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.25 adapted from Metals
Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed.,Chapter 11-17
H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)
SIMULATION: DISLOCATION MOTION
PEAK AGED MATERIAL
Peak-aged
--avg. particle size = 64b
--closer spaced particles
efficiently stop dislocations.

Simulation courtesy
of Volker Mohles,
Institut fr Materialphysik der
Universitt, Mnster,
Germany (http://www.
uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with
permission.

Chapter 11-18
SIMULATION: DISLOCATION MOTION
OVERAGED MATERIAL
Over-aged
--avg. particle size = 361b
--more widely spaced
particles not as
effective.

Simulation courtesy
of Volker Mohles,
Institut fr Materialphysik der
Universitt, Mnster,
Germany (http://www.
uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with
permission.

Chapter 11-19
 SUMMARY
Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding
--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.

Chapter 11-20
 Concept Check 11.1
ConceptCheck11.1
Brieflyexplainwhyferriticandausteniticstainlesssteelsarenotheat
treatable.Hint:youmaywanttoconsultthefirstportionofSection11.3.

ConceptCheck11.2
Itispossibletoproducecastironsthatconsistofamartensitematrixin
whichgraphiteisembeddedineitherflake,nodule,orrosetteform.
Brieflydescribethetreatmentnecessarytoproduceeachofthesethree
microstructures.
ConceptCheck11.3
Whatisthemaindifferencebetweenbrassandbronze?
ConceptCheck11.4
Explainwhy,undersomecircumstances,itisnotadvisabletowelda
structurethatisfabricatedwitha3003aluminumalloy.Hint:youmay
wanttoconsultSection7.12. Chapter 11-
ConceptCheck11.5
Onthebasisofmeltingtemperature,oxidationresistance,yieldstrength,
anddegreeofbrittleness,discusswhetheritwouldbeadvisabletohot
workortocoldwork(a)aluminumalloys,and(b)magnesiumalloys.
Hint:youmaywanttoconsultSections7.10and7.12.

ConceptCheck11.6
(a)Citetwoadvantagesofpowdermetallurgyovercasting.(b)Citetwo
disadvantages.

ConceptCheck11.7
Whataretheprincipaldifferencesbetweenwelding,brazing,and
soldering?Youmayneedtoconsultanotherreference.
ConceptCheck11.8
Namethethreefactorsthatinfluencethedegreetowhichmartensiteis
formedthroughoutthecrosssectionofasteelspecimen.Foreach,tell
howtheextentofmartensiteformationmaybeincreased.
Chapter 11-
 Concept Check 11.9
ConceptCheck11.9
Isitpossibletoproduceaprecipitationhardened2014aluminumalloy
havingaminimumyieldstrengthof350MPa(50,000psi)andaductility
ofatleast18%EL?Ifso,specifytheprecipitationheattreatment.Ifitis
notpossiblethenexplainwhy.

Chapter 11-