Signal-to-noise ratio
Introduction
4
Introduction
Information Source: Messages come from voice, data, video and other
types of sources (ex: Microphone, Camera, Keyboard)
Transmitting
Antenna
Modulating Audio RF
Modulator
Signal Amplifier Amplifier
Carrier
Signal
3) Channel / Medium
Channel/Medium is the link or path or electric medium over which information flows from
the source to destination. Many links combined will establish a communication networks.
Every channel introduces some amount of loss or attenuation, so the signal power
progressively decreases with increasing distance.
When long distances are required, repeater amplifier may be used along the path to
maintain the signal integrity.
4) Receiver
Receives the electrical signals or electromagnetic waves that are sent by the
transmitter through the channel.
Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a
demodulator or detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the
modulated carrier.
4) Receiver
RF
Amplifier
Intermediate
Mixer Frequency Audio
Demodulator Destination
Amplifier Amplifier
Local
Oscillator
Destination is where the user receives the information, such as loud speaker, visual display,
computer monitor, plotter and printer.
5) Noise
If the channel has a linear but distorting response, distortion may be corrected, or
reduced with the help of equalizers.
5) Noise
Interference occurs most often in radio systems whose receiving antennas usually
intercept several signals at the same time.
Types of Communication Modes
Direction of transmission
Simplex: one-way transmission.
Two-way communication requires a transmitter
and receiver at each end.
Full duplex system has a channel that allows
simultaneous transmission in both directions.
Half-duplex system allows transmission in either
direction but not at the same time.
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1-3: Types of Electronic Communication
Simplex
The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as simplex.
This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
Radio
TV broadcasting
Beeper (personal receiver)
1-3: Types of Electronic Communication
Full Duplex
Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as duplex.
When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex. The
telephone is an example of this type of communication.
1-3: Types of Electronic Communication
Half Duplex
The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a
time is known as half duplex. Examples are:
Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
Citizen band (CB)
Family radio
Amateur radio
1-3: Types of Electronic Communication
Analog Signals
An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current.
Examples are:
Sine wave
Voice
Video (TV)
1-3: Types of Electronic Communication
Figure 1-5: Analog signals (a) Sine wave tone. (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV) signal.
1-3: Types of Electronic Communication
Digital Signals
Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments.
Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes. Examples are:
Telegraph (Morse code)
Continuous wave (CW) code
Serial binary code (used in computers)
1-3: Types of Electronic Communication
Figure 1-6: Digital signals (a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW)
code. (c) Serial binary code.
Information Theory, Bandwidth and
Channel Capacity
Fundamental Limitation
Technological problems
Hardware availability, economics factor, federal
regulations, and so on.
Limitations on performance
electrical noise and bandwidth allocated for the
transmitted signals.
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Wavelength and frequency
Wave propagation are the frequency, the period and the
wavelength.
Period is the time duration of one cycle.
Wavelength: the distance a given point in a wave travels in
one cycle.
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Information Theory
Information
is that quantity if information that is
transferred between transmitter and receiver
Information is based upon probability
Information does not have meaning
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Bits, Digits and Symbols
Bits are units of information
Digits are binary symbols to transport Bits
Symbols are M-ary transport of Bits and Digits
R = bit rate or information rate
rb = digit rate
rs = symbol rate or baud rate
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Mathematical Expressions
Self Information of a symbol
1 b = base
I i log b Pi = probability of
Pi message occurring
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Entropy
Average Information per symbol
m
1
entropy H ( x) Pi log 2
1 Pi
Entropy (H) is defines as the average amount of information conveyed
per symbol.
Entropy is maximized when the symbols are equiprobable.
In the binary case, as either of the 2 messages becomes more likely, the
entropy decreases.
Generally : 0H(x)log M
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Channel Capacity
The ability of a channel to transfer information
error free.
Cannot be exceeded without errors.
Controlled by:
Bandwidth
Signal to Noise
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Capacity Equation
Taking both limitations into account, Shannon stated that
the rate of information transmission cannot exceed the
channel capacity.
C = B log (1+S/N)
B is the channel bandwidth in hertz, rs =2BW
C = rs log2M
Where log2M is max entropy of source H(Y)
Thus, C give max error free transmission
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Achieving Capacity
Communication Systems are designed with capacity in
mind.
This cannot be achieved in practice.
Requires:
Source Coding
Error Coding
Signalling
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Example
Bandwidth = 1MHz
S/N = 15 = 11.76dB
Capacity = 4Mbps
Maximum baud rate = 2Mbaud
(baud rate: num of symbols/sec transferred)
M rb rs
2 2Mbps 2Mbaud
Implies4that 4 symbols
4Mbps
to be used. 2Mbaud
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Example
The SNR of a transmission channel is 12dB. If the
channel capacity is 6Mbps, determine the maximum
transmission symbol rate for error free
transmission.
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Noise
Electrical noise - undesired voltages or current
that ultimately end up appearing in the receiver
output.
Static noise electrical noise that may occur in the
output of a receiver.
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External noise
Man-made noise often produced by spark-producing
mechanisms.
This noise radiated from its generating source through the
atmosphere in the same fashion that a transmitting antenna
radiated desirable electrical signals to a receiving antenna.
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Internal noise
The noise already present at the receiving antenna has
another component added to it before it reaches the
output.
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Example:
A 500 resistor is connected across the 500
antenna input of a television receiver. The
bandwidth of the receiver is 6 MHz and the resistor
is at room temperature 20oC. Find the noise power
and noise voltage applied to the receiver input.
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1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing
Baseband Transmission
Baseband information can be sent directly and unmodified over the medium or
can be used to modulate a carrier for transmission over the medium.
In telephone or intercom systems, the voice is placed on the wires and
transmitted.
In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial or
twisted-pair cables for transmission.
1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing
Broadband Transmission
A carrier is a high frequency signal that is modulated by audio, video, or data.
A radio-frequency (RF) wave is an electromagnetic signal that is able to travel
long distances through space.
1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing
Broadband Transmission
A broadband transmission takes place when a carrier signal is modulated,
amplified, and sent to the antenna for transmission.
The two most common methods of modulation are:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Another method is called phase modulation (PM), in which the phase angle of
the sine wave is varied.
1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing
Figure 1-8: Types of modulation. (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency modulation.
1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing
Broadband Transmission
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) takes place when data is converted to
frequency-varying tones.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share the same
medium or channel.
The three basic types of multiplexing are:
Frequency division
Time division
Code division
1-4: Modulation and Multiplexing
Figure 1-15: Frequency and wavelength. (a) One cycle. (b) One wavelength.
1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Frequency and Wavelength: Wavelength
Wavelength () = speed of light frequency
Speed of light = 3 108 meters/second
Therefore:
= 3 108 / f
Example:
What is the wavelength if the frequency is 4MHz?
= 3 108 / 4 MHz
= 75 meters (m)
1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Optical Spectrum
The optical spectrum exists directly above the millimeter wave region.
Three types of light waves are:
Infrared
Visible spectrum
Ultraviolet
1-5: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
2
= 10 log10 G = 10 log10
1
When output power > input power; power gain >1, there is a true
gain, decibels gain is positive.
When output power < input power; power gain < 1, this means loss
of power, decibels power gain is negative.
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Decibels power loss
The absolute power loss L defines as
1 1
= =
2
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Decibel measure of voltage and
current
While most of the basic decibel form is concerned with
power ratios, it is also possible to convert voltage and
current ratios to equivalent decibel forms.
2 2 2 /
= 10 log = 10 log 2 = 10 log 2 /1 2
= 10 log 2
1 1 /
2
= 20 log 2 /1 = 20 log
2
= 20 log 2 /1 = 20 log
All of the decibel values that are derived from power level
that are integer power of 10 are exact. Note that a decibel is
not an absolute unit.
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Decibel signal level reference
standards
One milliwatt (mW), and all decibel measurements relative to
that level are assigned the unit dBm.
()
() = 10 log
1
= 10 log = 10 log
1 1 103
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Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Assume that the average signal power is P and that the average noise
power is N, both measured in the same units. The absolute signal power
to noise power ratio is often express symbolically as S/N, and it can be
define as
=
Decibel Signal to Noise ratio
(/) = 10 log(/)
(/) = 10 log 10 log
The signal-to-noise ratio in db is equal to the signal power express in
any arbitrary decibel signal level minus the noise power level express
in the same units.
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Example
At a certain power in a communication system, the signal
power is 5 mW, and the noise power is 100 nW. Determine
the absolute signal-to-noise ratio and the decibel signal-to-
noise ratio. Convert both signal and noise power levels to
dBm values and determine the decibel signal-to-noise ratio
from this values.
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