College Algebra

Fifth Edition
James Stewart Lothar Redlin Saleem Watson
4 Polynomial and
Rational Functions
 Complex Zeros
and the Fundamental
4.5 Theorem of Algebra
Introduction

We have already seen that an nth-degree

polynomial can have at most n real zeros.

In the complex number system, an nth-degree

polynomial has exactly n zeros.

Thus, it can be factored into exactly n linear factors.

This fact is a consequence of the Fundamental

Theorem of Algebra, which was proved by
the German mathematician C. F. Gauss in 1799.
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
and Complete Factorization
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

The following theorem is the basis

for much of our work in:

Factoring polynomials.

Solving polynomial equations.

 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial

P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + . . . + a1x + a0

(n 0, an 0)

with complex coefficients has at least

one complex zero.

As any real number is also a complex number,

it applies to polynomials with real coefficients too.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

and the Factor Theorem together show that
a polynomial can be factored completely
into linear factorsas we now prove.
 Complete Factorization Theorem

If P(x) is a polynomial of degree n 1, then

there exist complex numbers a, c1, c2, . . . , cn
(with a 0) such that

P(x) = a(x c1) (x c2 ) . . . (x cn)

 Complete Factorization TheoremProof

By the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra,

P has at least one zerowhich we will call c1.

By the Factor Theorem, P(x) can be factored

as:
P(x) = (x c1) Q1(x)

where Q1(x) is of degree n 1.

 Complete Factorization TheoremProof

Applying the Fundamental Theorem to

the quotient Q1(x) gives us the factorization

P(x) = (x c1) (x c2) Q2(x)

where:
Q2(x) is of degree n 2.
c2 is a zero of Q1(x).
Complete Factorization TheoremProof

Continuing this process for n steps,

we get a final quotient Qn(x) of degree 0a
nonzero constant that we will call a.

This means that P has been factored as:

P(x) = a(x c1)(x c2) (x cn)

Complex Zeros

To actually find the complex zeros of

an nth-degree polynomial, we usually:

First, factor as much as possible.

Then, use the quadratic formula on parts

that we cant factor further.
 E.g. 1Factoring a Polynomial Completely

Let P(x) = x3 3x2 + x 3

(a) Find all the zeros of P.

(b) Find the complete factorization of P.

E.g. 1Factoring Completely Example (a)

We first factor P as follows.

P ( x ) = x - 3x + x - 3
3 2

=x 2
( x - 3) + ( x - 3)
= ( x - 3 ) ( x + 1)
2
E.g. 1Factoring Completely Example (a)

We find the zeros of P by setting each

factor equal to 0:
P(x) = (x 3)(x2 + 1)

Setting x 3 = 0, we see that x = 3 is a zero.

Setting x2 + 1 = 0, we get x2 = 1; so, x = i.

Thus, the zeros of P are 3, i, and i.

E.g. 1Factoring Completely Example (b)

Since the zeros are 3, i, and i,

by the Complete Factorization Theorem,
P factors as:

P ( x ) = ( x - 3) ( x - i )
x - ( -i )

= ( x - 3) ( x - i ) ( x + i )
 E.g. 2Factoring a Polynomial Completely

Let P(x) = x3 2x + 4.

(a) Find all the zeros of P.

(b) Find the complete factorization of P.

E.g. 2Factoring Completely Example (a)

The possible rational zeros are

the factors of 4: 1, 2, and 4.

Using synthetic division, we find that 2 is

a zero, and the polynomial factors as:

P(x) = (x + 2) (x2 2x + 2)
E.g. 2Factoring Completely Example (a)

To find the zeros, we set each factor

equal to 0.

Of course, x + 2 = 0 means x = 2.

We use the quadratic formula to find

when the other factor is 0.
E.g. 2Factoring Completely Example (a)

x - 2x + 2 = 0
2

2 4-8
x=
2
2 2i
x=
2
x = 1 i

So, the zeros of P are 2, 1 + i, and 1 i.

 E.g. 2Factoring Completely Example (b)

Since the zeros are 2, 1 + i, and 1 i,

by the Complete Factorization Theorem,
P factors as:

P ( x) =
x - ( -2 )

x - ( 1+ i )

x - ( 1- i )

= ( x + 2) ( x - 1- i ) ( x - 1+ i )
Zeros and Their Multiplicities
 Zeros and Their Multiplicities

In the Complete Factorization Theorem,

the numbers c1, c2, . . . , cn are the zeros
of P.

These zeros need not all be different.

If the factor x c appears k times in the complete

factorization of P(x), we say that c is a zero of
multiplicity k.
 Zeros and Their Multiplicities

For example, the polynomial

P(x) = (x 1)3(x + 2)2(x + 3)5

has the following zeros:

1 (multiplicity 3)
2 (multiplicity 2)
3 (multiplicity 5)
Zeros and Their Multiplicities

The polynomial P has the same

number of zeros as its degree.

It has degree 10 and has 10 zerosprovided

we count multiplicities.

This is true for all polynomialsas we prove

in the following theorem.
 Zeros Theorem

Every polynomial of degree n 1

has exactly n zerosprovided a zero
of multiplicity k is counted k times.
Zeros TheoremProof

Let P be a polynomial of degree n.

By the Complete Factorization Theorem,

P(x) = a(x c1)(x c2) (x cn)

Zeros TheoremProof

Now, suppose that c is a zero of P

other than c1, c2, . . . , cn.

Then,

P(c) = a(c c1)(c c2) (c cn)

=0
Zeros TheoremProof

Thus, by the Zero-Product Property,

one of the factors c ci must be 0.

So, c = ci for some i.

It follows that P has exactly the n zeros

c1, c2, . . . , cn.
 E.g. 3Factoring a Polynomial with Complex Zeros

Find the complete factorization and

all five zeros of the polynomial

P(x) = 3x5 + 24x3 + 48x

 E.g. 3Factoring a Polynomial with Complex Zeros

Since 3x is a common factor,

we have:
P ( x ) = 3 x ( x + 8 x + 16 )
4 2

= 3x ( x + 4)
2
2

To factor x2 + 4, note that 2i and 2i

are zeros of this polynomial.
 E.g. 3Factoring a Polynomial with Complex Zeros

Thus, x2 + 4 = (x 2i )(x + 2i ).
Therefore,
P ( x ) = 3x
( x - 2i ) ( x + 2i )
2

= 3 x ( x - 2i ) ( x + 2i )
2 2

The zeros of P are 0, 2i, and 2i.

Since the factors x 2i and x + 2i each occur twice
in the complete factorization, the zeros 2i and 2i
are of multiplicity 2 (or double zeros).
Thus, we have found all five zeros.
Factoring a Polynomial with Complex Zeros

The table gives further examples of

polynomials with their complete factorizations
and zeros.
 E.g. 4Finding Polynomials with Specified Zeros

(a) Find a polynomial P(x) of degree 4,

with zeros i, i, 2, and 2 and with
P(3) = 25.

(b) Find a polynomial Q(x) of degree 4,

with zeros 2 and 0, where 2 is a zero
of multiplicity 3.
E.g. 4Specified Zeros Example (a)

The required polynomial has the form

P ( x ) = a ( x - i ) ( x - ( - i ) ) ( x - 2 ) ( x - ( -2 ) )

(
= a x +1 x - 4
2
)( 2
)
= a( x 4
- 3x - 4
2
)
We know that P(3) = a(34 3 32 4) = 50a = 25.
Thus, a = 1/2 .
So, P(x) = 1/2x4 3/2x2 2
 E.g. 4Specified Zeros Example (b)

We require:

Q( x) = a
x - ( -2 )
( x - 0 )
3

= a ( x + 2) x
3

(
= a x 3 + 6 x 2 + 12 x + 8 x )
(Special Product Formula 4, Section P.5)

(
= a x 4 + 6 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 8 x )
E.g. 4Specified Zeros Example (b)

We are given no information about Q other

than its zeros and their multiplicity.

So, we can choose any number for a.

If we use a = 1, we get:

Q(x) = x4 + 6x3 + 12x2 + 8x

 E.g. 5Finding All the Zeros of a Polynomial

Find all four zeros of

P(x) = 3x4 2x3 x2 12x 4

Using the Rational Zeros Theorem from

Section 4.4, we obtain this list of possible
rational zeros:
1, 2, 4, 1/3, 2/3, 4/3
E.g. 5Finding All the Zeros of a Polynomial

Checking them using synthetic division,

we find that 2 and -1/3 are zeros, and we
get the following factorization.

P ( x ) = 3 x 4 - 2 x 3 - x 2 - 12 x - 4
(
= ( x - 2) 3 x + 4x + 7x + 2
3 2
)
(
= ( x - 2 ) ( x + 31 ) 3 x 2 + 3 x + 6 )
= 3 ( x - 2) ( x + 1
3 )(x 2
+x+2 )
E.g. 5Finding All the Zeros of a Polynomial

The zeros of the quadratic factor

are:
-1 1 - 8 1 7
x= = - i
2 2 2

So, the zeros of P(x) are:

1 1 7 1 7
2, - , - + i , - -i
3 2 2 2 2
Finding All the Zeros of a Polynomial

The figure shows the graph of the

polynomial P in Example 5.

The x-intercepts
correspond to the real
zeros of P.

The imaginary zeros

cannot be determined
from the graph.
Complex Zeros Come
in Conjugate Pairs
Complex Zeros Come in Conjugate Pairs

As you may have noticed from the examples

so far, the complex zeros of polynomials with
real coefficients come in pairs.

Whenever a + bi is a zero, its complex

conjugate a bi is also a zero.
 Conjugate Zeros Theorem

If the polynomial P has real coefficients,

and if the complex number z is a zero of P,
then its complex conjugate z is also a zero
of P.
 Conjugate Zeros TheoremProof

Let
P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + . . . + a1x + a0

where each coefficient is real.

Suppose that P(z) = 0.

We must prove that .

P(z) = 0
Conjugate Zeros TheoremProof

We use the facts that:

The complex conjugate of a sum of two

complex numbers is the sum of the conjugates.

The conjugate of a product is the product

of the conjugates.
Conjugate Zeros TheoremProof

( ) ( ) ( )
n n -1
P z = an z + an -1 z +
+ a1 z + a0

= an z n + an -1 z n -1 +
+ a1 z + a0
n -1
= an z + an -1z
n
+
+ a1z + a0
n -1
= an z + an -1z
n
+
+ a1z + a0
= P ( z) = 0 = 0
This shows that z is also a zero of P(x),
which proves the theorem.
 E.g. 6A Polynomial with a Specified Complex Zero

Find a polynomial P(x) of degree 3

that has integer coefficients and zeros
1/2 and 3 i.

Since 3 i is a zero, then so is 3 + i

by the Conjugate Zeros Theorem.
 E.g. 6A Polynomial with a Specified Complex Zero

That means P(x) has the form

P ( x ) = a ( x - 21 )
x -(3-i)
x -(3+i)


= a ( x - 21 )
( x - 3) + i
( x - 3) - i


= a ( x - ) ( x - 3 ) - i 2 (Diff. of Squares Formula)

1 2

2
= a( x - 1
2 )(x 2
- 6 x + 10 )
(
= a x 3 - 132 x 2 + 13 x - 5 )
E.g. 6A Polynomial with a Specified Complex Zero

To make all coefficients integers,

we set a = 2 and get:

P(x) = 2x3 13x2 + 26x 10

Any other polynomial that satisfies

the given requirements must be
an integer multiple of this one.
Linear and Quadratic Factors
Linear and Quadratic Factors

We have seen that a polynomial factors

completely into linear factors if we use
complex numbers.

If we dont use complex numbers,

a polynomial with real coefficients can always
be factored into linear and quadratic factors.
Linear and Quadratic Factors

A quadratic polynomial with no real

zeros is called irreducible over the real
numbers.

Such a polynomial cannot be factored

without using complex numbers.
 Linear and Quadratic Factors Theorem

Every polynomial with real coefficients

can be factored into a product of linear
and irreducible quadratic factors with
real coefficients.
Linear and Quadratic Factors TheoremProof

We first observe that, if c = a + bi

is a complex number, then

( x - c) ( x - c) =
x - ( a + bi )
x - ( a - bi )

= ( x - a ) - bi

( x - a ) + bi

= ( x - a ) - ( bi )
2 2

(
= x 2 - 2ax + a 2 + b 2 )
The last expression is a quadratic with real
coefficients.
 Linear and Quadratic Factors TheoremProof

If P is a polynomial with real coefficients, by

the Complete Factorization Theorem,

P(x) = a(x c1)(x c2) (x cn)

The complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.

So, we can multiply the factors corresponding to each
such pair to get a quadratic factor with real coefficients.
This results in P being factored into linear and
irreducible quadratic factors.
 E.g. 7Factoring into Linear and Quadratic Factors

Let P(x) = x4 + 2x2 8.

(a) Factor P into linear and irreducible

quadratic factors with real coefficients.

(b) Factor P completely into linear factors

with complex coefficients
 E.g. 7Linear & Quadratic Factors Example (a)

P ( x ) = x + 2x - 8
4 2

(
= x -2 x +4
2
)( 2
)
( )(
= x- 2 x+ 2 x +4 )( 2
)
The factor x2 + 4 is irreducible, since it has no
real zeros.
E.g. 7Linear & Quadratic Factors Example (b)

To get the complete factorization, we

factor the remaining quadratic factor.

( )(
P ( x) = x - 2 x + 2 x + 4 )( 2
)
= ( x - 2 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x - 2i ) ( x + 2i )