Research

Methodology

Week 8
 Learning Outcomes

Introduction to quantitative research

1. Research philosophy (Positivism/Interpretivism)
2. Research approach (deductive/Inductive)
3. Research strategy (Survey)
4. Time series (longitudinal/cross sectional)
5. Data (primary/secondary)
6. Sources and methods of data collection
7. Sampling and population (introduction)

Practical session to draw a research framework

Milestone 4:
Student should be able to complete the write-up on problem statement,
research questions, and significance.

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 References

Saunders, M., Lewis. P & Thornhill, A.

(2012) Research methods for business
students. 6th ed. Harlow: Pearson.

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 Research Proposal
Chapter 1
Introduction

Chapter 2
Literature Review

Chapter 3
Methodology
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 Example

Obstacles towards women moving in

leadership positions: A Quantitative study in
the Services Sector, Malaysia.
Quantitative

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 Chapter 3 Methodology
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Philosophy (Positivism/ Interpretivism)
3.2 Research Approach (deductive/Inductive)
3.3 Research Strategy (Survey/case study)
3.4 Choices (Qualitative/quantitative)
3.5 Time series (longitudinal/cross sectional)
3.6 Data (primary/secondary)
3.7 Instrumentation/ Questionnaire
3.8 Sources of Data collection Interview/internet)
3.9 Sampling
3.10 Ethical Considerations
3.11 Data processing coding/editing/transferring
3.12 Data Analysis/Data Validity and reliability
3.13 Research Framework
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 Research Methodology & Method

Methodology is the study of methods and

refers to the strategy or approach to
research.

Method is a specific technique (or set of

techniques) for data collection

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 Components Addressed in
Research Methodology
Research Design
Participants/Sample
Instruments/ Questionnaire
Procedures/Data Collection
Limitations
Editing, Coding and Tabulation of data
Data Analysis/Anticipated Outcomes

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 Research Methodology/Design
The term methodology refers to the overall approaches
& perspectives to the research process as a whole and
is concerned with the following main issues:

1.Why you collected certain data

2.What data you collected
3.Where you collected it
4.How you collected it
5.How you analysed it
(Collis & Hussey, 2003, p.55).

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 Research Design
Research design
is a logical set of
procedures that
researchers use
to collect,
analyze, and
report their data
in a research
study- Cresswell

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 Research Design Saunders et al, (2009)

Figure 5.1 The research onion

The research onion
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 Classification of the Research Purpose -
Recap

Exploratory research

Descriptive studies

Causal/Explanatory studies

Saunders, M., Lewis. P & Thornhill, A. (2012) Research methods for business students.
6th ed. Harlow: Pearson.

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 Basic vs Applied Research
Basic to determine or establish fundamental facts
and relationships within a discipline or field of study.
Add to knowledge

Applied undertaken specifically for the purpose of

obtaining information to help resolve a particular
problem in an organization

The distinction between them is in the application

Basic has little application to real world policy and
management but could be done to guide applied
research

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 Philosophy: Cresswell
A general philosophical orientation
about the world and the nature of
research that a researcher brings to a
study Cresswell
Lead to embracing a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods approach
a basic set of beliefs that guide action
(Guba, 1990)

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 Research Philosophies
Where is the researcher coming from?
What assumptions does s/he make? (The
answer is never none.)
Major Worldviews:
(Post)positivism/Determinism/Empiricism
Constructivism/Interpretivism
Pragmatic:
Cresswell

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 Philosophies (cont.)
1. Positivism:
Cause and effect/Scientific method
Experimentation and measurement can reveal objective reality
Strive for objectivity
Start with hypothesis and test

2. Interpretivism/Constructivism:
Reality is subjective and multiple
Seek to understand meaning as experienced by participants
Meaning of events is mediated by interactions with others, and social
and cultural context
Start with open-ended inquiry and result in hypothesis

3. Pragmatism:
Analogue of mixed-method strategy
Mixes aspects of other worldviews to get at what works
No need for ideological consistency
Believe in objective reality (as with empiricists), but acknowledge context
is inescapable (as per constructivists)
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 Philosophy: Saunders
Philosophy
Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the
development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge

What you are doing when embarking on research developing

knowledge in a particular field

Philosophy you adopt contains important assumptions about the

way in which you view the world.
Eg: Concerned with Feelings and attitudes OR Facts
Your particular view of the relationship between knowledge and
the process by which it is developed.
-Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)
Quantitative and qualitative research methods involve very different assumptions
about
Module how
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 Research philosophy
Positivism Believes in the possibility to observe and describe reality from
an objective viewpoint.
Observe the world in some neutral and objective way, discover
general relationships and universal laws, derive theories,
test them. Quantitative Approach

Realism Realism is that what the senses show us as reality is the truth.
Objects have an existence independent of the human mind

Pragmatism Pragmatism argues that both constructivism and objectivism

are valid ways to approach research. Mixed Method

Interpretivism Interpreted by the individual according to his or her

ideological positions.
Different interpretations are possible and thus are subjective
Qualitative Approach
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 Selection of Research Paradigm and
Research
Research paradigm: Positivism
Research Approach: Quantitative
Research Methods: Survey, longitudinal, cross-
sectional, correlation, experiments
Examples:
1. Attitude of foreign students towards APU
registration system.
2. Relationship between students financial position
and their academic performance.
3. Effect of emotional intelligence on learning
effectiveness.
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Selection of Research Paradigm and research
methods (2)
Research paradigm: Interpretivism
Research Approach: Qualitative
Research methods: Case-study
Examples:
1. A study of effective management among
female managers
2. A case-study of APU Postgraduate learning
programme.

Dr Salmiah Mohamad Amin FPPSM, UTM

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 Epistemology, Ontology and
Methodology
Ontology:
To do with our assumptions about how the world is made up and the nature
of things
1. Objectivism. This portrays the position that social entities exist in
reality external to social actors concerned with their existence.
2.Subjectivism : Holds that social phenomena are created from the
perceptions and consequent actions of those social actors concerned
with their existence

Blaikie (1993) describes the root definition of ontology as the science or

study of being and develops this description for the social sciences to
encompass claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make
it up and how these units interact with each other

Example of a workplace report asking one to question whether it describes what

is really going on, or only what the author thinks is going on. What really exist
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Epistemology, Ontology and Methodology
Epistemology: To do with our beliefs about how one might
discover knowledge about the world
The study of our method of acquiring knowledge.
The explanation of how we think.
It answers the question, "How do we know?" I

Epistemology considers views about the most appropriate ways of

enquiring into the nature of the world (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and
Jackson, 2008)
and
what is knowledge and what are the sources and limits of knowledge
(Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2008).

Questions of epistemology begin to consider the research method, and

Eriksson and Kovalainen go on to discuss how epistemology defines
how knowledge can be produced and argued for

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 Axiology
A branch of philosophy that studies judgments
about value.
Although this may include values we possess
in the fields of aesthetics and ethics, it is the
process of social enquiry with which we are
concerned here.
The role that your own values play in all stages
of the research process is of great importance
if you wish your research results to be credible.

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 Research Approach
Deductive Reasoning
Starts with a general rule (a Deduction: testing theory
theory) which we know to be Deducing a hypothesis from
true. theory.
Then, from that rule, we make Expressing the hypothesis in
a true conclusion about operational terms.
something specific. Testing this operational
hypothesis.
The process of reasoning from
Examining the specific
known facts to conclusions. outcome of the inquiry.
If necessary, modifying the
theory in the light of the
findings.

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 Inductive Approach Induction: building theory
Inductive means that you are researching to
create theory.
The process of going from observations to
conclusions.
The process moves in the opposite direction to the
deductive approach taking its focus from the
working title of the researcher not the existing
theory

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 Research Strategies
A research strategy usually has
A goal: something it can be used for
A procedure: steps to follow to achieve results
A set of techniques involved in the procedures

Experiment Action research

Grounded theory Survey

Ethnography Case study

Archival research
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 Research Strategies - Survey
A Survey collects information
A survey strategy is often associated with a
quantitative method using a questionnaire

Collecting large amounts of data from a Sample to

address the who, what, where, when and how of any
given topic or issue

Survey: collection of information in standardized

form groups of people: Saunders et al. 2009

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 Experiment
Goal: The purpose of the experimental research strategy is to establish the
existence of a cause- and- effect relationship between two variables

How: To accomplish this goal, an experiment manipulates one variable while a

second variable is measured and other variables are controlled.

Example: To study the impact of amount of light on productivity of

employees

Manipulation : Manipulate the amount of lighting (intervention)

Measurement : Obtain a set of scores in productivity of employees for each level
of lighting each treatment condition.

Control of all other variables

Experiment: measuring the effects of manipulating

one variable on another variable Saunders et al. 2009
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 Case study
Case study design involves extensive study of
one or more individuals or cases in a real life
context

Examines the characteristics of a particular

entity, phenomenon, or person
Case study is a strategy for doing research which
involves an empirical investigation of a particular
contemporary phenomenon with its real life
context using multiple sources of evidence. Yin,
1981

Case study: development of detailed, intensive knowledge

about a single case, or of a small number of related cases.
Saunders et al. 2009
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 Case Study
Provides a rich understanding of a real life context
Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data
Case Study: key features
Methods
Provides a rich understanding of a real life Documentation
context Interviews
Observation
Uses and triangulates multiple sources of ...and Others
data (Survey, Artifacts,
etc.)
A case study can be categorized in four
ways and based on two dimensions: Why multiple?
...Triangulation
single case v. multiple case
holistic case v. embedded case
Yin (2003)
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 Action research
Research IN action - not ON action focusing on the purpose
Involvement of practitioners in the research
The researcher becomes part of the organisation
Promotes change within the organisation
Can have two distinct foci (Schein, 1999)
the aim of the research and the needs of the sponsor
1. This strategy is concerned with addressing issues to find and
implement solutions
2. The strategy allows the researcher to be part of the
organization or case study that requires the solution.
3. The process of Action Research moves from a clear objective to
diagnosis of the problem and generation of a list of actions to
solve the problem.
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 Grounded theory
Grounded Theory is an approach for developing theory that
is "grounded in data systematically gathered and
analyzed" (Strauss & Corbin, 1994).

Helps to predict and explain behaviour

Develops theory from data generated by observations
Is an interpretative process, not a logico-deductive one
Based on Suddaby (2006)
Eg: Participant Observation. This involves the researcher immersing him or
herself in the daily lives and routines of those being studied. This often requires
extensive work in the setting being studied. This is called fieldwork.

Interviewing. Researchers using a Grounded Theory approach will learn about a

culture or group by speaking with informants
Researcher attempts to derive a general, abstract theory of a
process. action, or interaction grounded in the views of
participants in a study. Cresswell 2009
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 Ethnography
Inductive approach

Aims to describe and explain the social world inhabited by

the researcher
Takes place over an extended time period
Involves extended participant observation such as studying
gorillas in their natural habitat
Ethnography is rooted in anthropology, which is the study of others from a
detached point-of view.
However, ethnography requires the researcher to be a part of the community or
situation they are researching

Ethnography is the study of human behavior in its most natural and typical
context

Ethnography: Derives from the field of anthropology. The

idea is to interpret the social world the research subject
inhabits and the way in which they interpret it.
Saunders et al. 2009
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 Research Strategies
Archival research
Uses administrative records and documents as
the principal sources of data

Allows research questions focused on the past

Is constrained by the nature of the records and

documents
Saunders et al. 2009
Example: historical research
This strategy centers its data collection on existing data sets or archive
documents.
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 Multiple research methods
Research choices

Saunders et al, (2009)

Figure 5.4 Research choices
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 Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed
Research
Quantitative research
All the data collected will be counted/quantified
Aim: to approve/disprove a hypothesis.

Qualitative research
The data collected are non-numerical and gathered to be
analyzed in-depth, not to be quantified
Aim: to answer a research question

Mixed research
Research that involves the mixing of quantitative and
qualitative methods or paradigm characteristics.

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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative research: Predictive
focuses on verifying hypotheses (deductive) or finding
patterns (inductive) using typically large amounts of data

Qualitative research: Exploratory

focuses on understanding the important characteristics of
typically small samples of data

Example: investigate employees absenteeism

quantitative approach: collect ratings, verify user
responses (numerical)
qualitative approach: understand why employees absent
(words, voice)

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 TIME HORIZON: CROSS-SECTIONAL VERSUS
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
Cross-Sectional Studies
A study can be done in which data are gathered just once,
perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in order to
answer a research question.
Example: Data were collected from customers just once to
study their satisfaction level.

Longitudinal Studies
The researcher might want to study people or phenomena at
more than one point in time in order to answer the research
question.
Eg: To study employees behavior before and after a change in
the top management, so as to know what effects the change
accomplished. Data are gathered at two different points in time.

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 Data Type
(Primary/secondary)
Explain the type of data that will be collected and analysed

There are 2 types of data collected:

PRIMARY DATA: Data originated by a researcher for the

specific purpose of addressing the research problem.

SECONDARY DATA: Data that is collected from secondary

sources such as reports, newspapers etc

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 What type of Data?

PRIMARY DATA:
Data originated by a researcher for the specific
purpose of addressing the research problem.
Included among primary sources are interviews,
speeches etc

SECONDARY DATA:
Data collected for some purpose other than the
problem at hand.
Included among secondary data are reports available
in the libraries/ internet, magazines, newspapers etc.
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 Secondary data
Data someone else has collected
Sources.
1. Internal company Records
2. Company reports
3. Internal computer databases
4. Reports and publications of government agencies
5. Other publications.
6. Computerized databases.
The data for the research work is collected from source
like EBSCO, PROQUEST, Emerald
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 Primary Data

Primary data data you collect

Surveys
Focus groups
Questionnaires
Personal interviews
Experiments
Observational study

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Instrumentation/ Questionnaire
Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data.
Describe the questionnaire used in the study

1. Is it original? If any items are taken from existing questionnaire, identify the
sources (adopted/adapted)

3. The structure and the question categories (demographic/rating questions)

4. Describe the scaling methods used and state the reasons for choosing
them

5. Issues on validity and reliability

6. Was Pilot test done to check the clarity and appropriateness of the survey
questionnaire

(Attach a sample of the questionnaire)

Remember: Questions are ADOPTED

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or ADAPTED
Instrumentation/ Questionnaire
Section A is aimed to obtain the
general information and demographic
data of the respective respondents,
nominal scale is used to measure the
most appropriate answers for the
respective respondents.

In Section B, the interval scale was

used as the main scale of
measurement. The 5-points of Likert
scale were used for the questions in
Section B which allow the
respondents to identify whether they are
(1) Strongly Agree, (2) Agree, (3)
Neutral, (4) Disagree and (5) Strongly
Disagree with the statements.

The questions were adapted..

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 Use of questionnaires

Types of questionnaire

Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 11.1 Types of questionnaire

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Sources of Data collection
Once your questionnaire is designed, and your sample selected,
the questionnaire can be used to collect data via five main types.
Describe how the questionnaire was administered and discuss
problems encountered
Internet- or intranet-mediated,
postal,
delivery and collection,
telephone
interview
State the steps in data collection ie:
What method was used
How many questionnaires/respondents
How was the response rate and follow up
If pilot testing was done, state the reliability and validity testing
results and what amendments done to questionnaire
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 29 August 2005
What methods used for Data Collection

Surveys
Interviews
Observation
Experiments
Historical Data
Focus Group

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 Qualitative vs Quantitative Approaches

Qualitative
Focus Group
Interview
Case Study
Participant observation
Secondary data analysis
Quantitative
Surveys
Experiments
Structured observation
Secondary data analysis
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 Observation
Intensive, usually long term, examination of a social
group, an organization, etc.

Researcher becomes a participant in the lives of

group members
Observes their behavior and learns meaning systems
(which are tied to language)

Most closely associated with Ethnography, as

developed in Classical Anthropology

See what is happening

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 Interviews
Unstructured e.g. ethnographic interviewing researcher
allows interview to proceed at respondents pace and subjects
to vary by interviewee (to an extent)

Semi-structured Asks same general set of questions

(predominantly open-ended). Further probing

Structured Precisely worded questions.

Everyone asked exactly the same questions in exactly the
same way, given exactly the same choices
Type of interview to use
Individual
Focus group
Telephone
e-mail
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 Focus group
A small group of people are A type of group
brought together to discuss interview.
Focuses on group
specific topics of interest to the interaction on a
researcher. topic selected by
the researcher.
The group process tends to elicit Ideally 4- 12
participants.
more information than The interaction is
directed by a
individual interviews because moderator who asks
there is cross-conversation and questions and
keeps the
discussion. discussion on the
Different views can be explored. topic.

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 Surveys

A survey involves data collection from a large

number of respondents using a predesigned
questionnaire.
Four basic survey methods:
Telephone survey
Self Administered mail/e-mail
Person-administered surveys (distribute and collect)
Website eg: Google Form
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 Google Form

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 The sampling
1- Defining the population:
process:
Sampling begin with precisely defining the target population.
Ensure the qualification criteria is right

2- Determining the sample frame:

The sampling frame is a representation of all the elements in the
population from whish the sample is drawn.

3- Determining the sampling design: ( Two types )

Probability sampling, the elements in the population have some
known probability of being selected as sample subject.
Non probability sampling, the elements do not have a known
chance of being selected as sample subject.

4- Sample size
Sample size to represent
the population

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 What is Sampling?
A sample is a smaller (but
hopefully representative) STUDY POPULATION
collection of units from a
population used to determine
truths about that population
(Field, 2005)
SAMPLE

The process of selecting a

number of individuals for a
study in such a way that the
individuals represent the larger
group from which they were
TARGET POPULATION
selected
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 Population : Any
complete group People,
Sales territories, etc

Target Population:
Relevant population

Sampling Frame: A list of

elements from which the
sample may be drawn

Sample : Subset of a
larger population

Sampling Unit : A list of

elements from which the
sample may be drawn

Census : Investigation of
all individual elements
5that make up a population SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
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 SAMPLING DESIGN PROCESS

Probability Sampling
Sample has a known probability (chance) of being selected

Non-probability Sampling
Sample does not have known probability of being selected as in
convenience
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 Ethical Considerations

Ethics are the norms or standards for conduct that

distinguish between right and wrong.

They help to determine the difference between

acceptable and unacceptable behaviors.

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 Rights & Obligations of Subject

Right to informed consent

Obligation to be truthful
Right to privacy
Right to confidentiality
Right to no harm
Right to be informed

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 Rights & Obligations of Researcher

Ethical conduct
Obligation to reduce bias
Do not misrepresent data
Privacy
Commitment to research
Plagiarism
Falsification

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 Data Processing
coding/editing/transferring
1. State editing, coding and tabulating the data
2. What program was used?

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 Overview of the Stages of Data Analysis

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 Data Preparation

Getting data ready for analysis(SPSS)

Editing
Handling Blank Reponses
Coding
Categorizing
Creating data file
Programming

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 Editing, coding and tabulation
Editing Data
The process of checking and adjusting responses in the completed
questionnaires for omissions, legibility, and consistency and readying
them for coding and storage
CODING
The process of identifying and classifying each answer with a numerical
score or other character symbol. Usually a number to each response
If male=1 and if female=2
TABULATION
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the
same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical table) for further
analysis
Data Transformation
Converting some of the data from the format in which they were
entered to a format most suitable for particular statistical analysis.
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 Data Analysis
In data analysis we have three objectives:
1. getting a feel for the data,
2. testing the goodness of data, and
3. testing the hypotheses developed for the
research.

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 Data Analysis Uma Sekaran

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 Feel of the data
We can acquire a feel for the data by
checking the central tendency and the
Frequency
dispersion.
Distributions
Examination of the measure of central tendency, and
Mean, SD
how clustered or dispersed the variables are, gives a
Range
good idea of how well the questions were framed for
tapping the concept

The statistics give feel for the data:

Frequency distributions For categorical
variables
The mean, standard deviation, range, and
variance on the other dependent and
independent variables
The mean, the range, the standard deviation, and the
variance in the data will give the researcher a good
idea of how the respondents have reacted to the items
in the questionnaire and how good the items and
measures are. Source: Sekaran: 2003
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 Testing Goodness of data
Validity & Reliability
.

Reliability is:
the consistency of your measurement
instrument

Validity asks
if an instrument measures what it is supposed
to measure

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 Testing Goodness of data -
Reliability
Reliability

the degree to which a test or measure

produces the same scores when applied in the
same circumstances

(Nelson 1997)
Cronbachs alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the
items in a set are positively correlated to one another.

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 Goodness of data - Validity
Degree to which a test or instrument
measures what it purports to measure
(Thomas & Nelson 1996)

The soundness or appropriateness of a test or

instrument in measuring what it is designed to
measure
(Vincent 1999)

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 VALIDITY IN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Concurrent
Construct
Content
Criterion-related
Convergent & discriminant
Face
Predictive
External
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 Validity
1. Face Validity
extent to which the measurement method appears
on its face to measure the construct of interest
Infers that a test is valid by definition
e.g. People might have negative reactions to an intelligence test that
did not appear to them to be measuring their intelligence
2. Content Validity
Infers that the test measures all aspects contributing to the
variable of interest
Extent to which the measurement method covers the entire
range of relevant behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that
define the construct being measured.
e.g. a test to assess ones attitude toward taxes should include
items about thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
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 Validity
3. Concurrent Validity
Infers that the test produces similar results to a previously
validated test When the criterion is something that is
happening or being
assessed at the same time as the construct of interest, it is
called concurrent validity.

e.g. People might have negative reactions to an intelligence test

that did not appear to them to be measuring their intelligence
4. Criterion Validity
It is the extent to which peoples scores are correlated with
other variables or criteria that reflect the same construct.
Example: An IQ test should correlate positively with school

performance.

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 Validity
5.Predictive Validity
Infers that the test provides a valid reflection of future
performance using a similar test
e.g. A new measure of self-esteem should correlate positively with
an old established measure.

6. Discriminant Validity
It is the extent to which peoples scores are not correlated with
other variables that reflect distinct constructs.
Example: Imagine, that a researcher with a new measure of self-
esteem claims that self-esteem is independent of mood; a person
with high self-esteem can be in either a good mood or a bad
mood (and a person with low self-esteem can too).
Then this researcher should be able to show that his self-esteem
measure is not correlated (or only weakly correlated) with a valid
measure of mood.
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 Normality
Many statistical methods
require that the numeric
variables we are working
with have an approximate
normal distribution.
For example, t-tests, F-tests,
and regression analyses all
require in some sense that the
Standardized
numeric variables are normal distribution
approximately normally with empirical rule
distributed. percentages.
In a symmetrical distribution, median, mode and mean all fall at the same point

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 Tools for Assessing Normality
Histogram and Boxplot
Skewness & Kurtosis
Normal Quantile Plot
(also called Normal Probability Plot)
Goodness of Fit Tests
Shapiro-Wilk Test
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
Multicollinearity Test
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 Testing Goodness of data - Normality
QQ Probability Plots

PP Cumulative Frequency
Plots
Histograms

Skewness
Kurtosis

Kolmogorov Smirnov test

Shapiro Wilk Test

Multi-collinearity Test
VIF/Tolerance
Histogram

Scatterplot
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 Hypothesis Testing

Once the data are ready for analysis, (i.e., out-of-

range/missing responses, etc., are cleaned up, and the
goodness of the measures is established), the
researcher is ready to test the hypotheses already
developed for the study.

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 Statistics: Whats What?

Descriptive Comparative
objectives/ research objectives/
questions: hypotheses

Descriptive statistics Inferential Statistics

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 Descriptive
Statistics
3 Types

1. Organize data 3. Summary Stats

Frequency Distributions
# of items that fall Describe data in just one
in a particular category number

2. Graphical Representations

Graphs & Tables

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 Descriptive Statistics
Types of descriptive statistics:
Organize Data
Tables
Graphs

Summarize Data
Central Tendency
Variation

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 Descriptive Statistics
Types of descriptive statistics:
Organize Data
Tables
Frequency Distributions
Relative Frequency Distributions
Graphs
Bar Chart
Histogram
Stem and Leaf Plot

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 Descriptive Statistics
Summarizing Data:

Central Tendency (or Groups Middle Values)

Mean
Median
Mode

Variation (or Summary of Differences Within

Groups)
Range
Interquartile Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
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 Descriptive Statistics
Number Variability
Frequency Count Variance and
Percentage standard deviation
Measures of Central Graphs
Tendency Normal Curve
Mean
Median
Mode
Mode the most frequently occurring observation
Median the middle value in the data (50 50 )
Mean arithmetic average
Describe what's going on in our data.
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 Inferential
statistics
We use inferential statistics to make inferences
from our data to more general conditions;
Eg: t-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

We use descriptive statistics simply to describe

what's going on in our data.
Eg: Mean, Median, Normality
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 Inferential Statistics
Sample
Sample

Sample
Population

Types of inferential statistics

Sample Parametric
T-tests
ANOVA
Inferential statistics are used Correlation
to draw conclusions about a Multiple regression
population by examining the ANCOVA
sample Non-parametric
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 Descriptive Statistics vs. Inferential Statistics

Allows us to draw
Allow us to say whether
conclusions
difference is significant
Through use of graphs

This difference
Is significant

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 Levels of significance and Confidence
The level of significance is the predetermined
level at which a null hypothesis is not
supported. The most common level is p < .05
P =probability
< = less than (> = more than)
Significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of
concluding that a difference exists when there is
no actual difference.

The null hypothesis is rejected if the p-value is less than a

predetermined level, . is called the significance level, and
is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis given that it
is true (a type I error). It is usually set at or below 5%.
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 P-levels/Significance Levels
Inferential tests use probability to ascertain the likelihood that a pattern
of results could have arisen by chance.

If the probability of the results occurring by chance is below a certain

level we assume these results to be significant

C
P 0.10
H
A
P 0.05
N
C
P 0.01
E P 0.001

We can also write these as 10%, 5%, 1%, 0.1%

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 T-Test Continuous variables
Test the difference between two sample means for
significance. Pretest to posttest

1.Paired Sample T Test

Compare the mean scores for the same group on 2 different
occasions OR when you have matched pairs
Eg: Scores of trainees before and after the training
2. Independent samples t-test
Two separate groups (independent group) require different
analysis.
Eg: Examination Performance for male and female

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 ANOVA
1. One way Analysis of variance - ANOVA
Comparing the mean scores of more than 2 groups
Example: Examination scores based on 3 different age
groups
2. Two way Analysis of variance - ANOVA
Two way means that there are 2 independent variables
Eg: Impact of age and gender on Examination scores
There are 2 categorical variables: Age and Gender
There is one continuous variable ie examination score

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 Correlation

Describe the strength an direction of the

linear relationship between 2 continuous
variables.

Example: The correlation between

examination scores and number of hours

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 Correlation
Correlationthe extent to which two variables are
related across a group of subjects
Pearson r
It can range from -1.00 to 1.00
-1.00 is a perfect inverse relationshipthe
strongest possible inverse relationship
0.00 indicates the complete absence of a
relationship
1.00 is a perfect positive relationshipthe
strongest possible direct relationship
The closer a value is to 0.00, the weaker the
relationship
The closer a value is to -1.00 or +1.00, the stronger
it is
Spearman rho
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 Correlation Interpretation
An interpretation of the size of the coefficient has been
described by Cohen (1992) as:

Correlation coefficient value Relationship

-0.3 to +0.3 Weak

-0.5 to -0.3 or 0.3 to 0.5 Moderate
-0.9 to -0.5 or 0.5 to 0.9 Strong
-1.0 to -0.9 or 0.9 to 1.0 Very strong

Cohen, L. (1992). Power Primer. Psychological Bulletin,

112(1) 155-159

www.statstutor.ac.uk
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 What Is Linear Regression?

Linear: Straight line.

Regression: Finds the model that
minimizes the total variation in the data (i.e.,
the best fit).
Linear Regression: Can be divided into
two categories:
Simple regression
Multiple regression
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 Regression is useful when we want to
a) look for significant relationships between two
variables
b) predict a value of one variable for a given value of
the other

It involves estimating the line of best fit through the

data which minimises the sum of the squared
residuals

www.statstutor.ac.uk
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 Simple Regression
Simple regression considers the relation
between a single explanatory variable and
response variable

15: Multiple Linear Regression

98
Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Basic Biostat
 Multiple Regression

It is used when we want to predict the value

of a variable based on the value of two or
more other variables.
The variable we want to predict is called the
dependent variable (or sometimes, the
outcome, target or criterion variable).
Example:
Exam performance can be predicted based on revision time,
test anxiety, lecture attendance
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 Multiple Regression
Multiple regression simultaneously considers the
influence of multiple explanatory variables on a
response variable Y

The intent is to look at

the independent effect
of each variable

15: Multiple Linear Regression

100
Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Basic Biostat
 Multiple Regression
It is used when we want to predict the value of a variable based on
the value of two or more other variables.

The variables we are using to predict the value of the dependent

variable are called the independent variables (or sometimes, the
predictor variables).
Example
You could use multiple regression to understand whether exam
performance can be predicted based on revision time, test anxiety
and lecture attendance

Revision Time

Test Anxiety Exam Performance

Lecture
Attendance
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 Inferential Statistics
Allows for comparisons across variables
i.e. is there a relation between ones occupation
and their reason for using the public library?
Hypothesis Testing
Types of inferential statistics
Parametric
T-tests
ANOVA
Correlation
Multiple regression
ANCOVA
Non-parametric
Chi-Square
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 Theoretical
Framework

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 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Conceptual model of how one theorizes or
makes logical sense of the relationships
among the several factors that have been
identified as important to the problem
A good theoretical framework
identifies and labels the important variables in the
situation that are relevant to the problem defined.
It logically describes the interconnections among
these variables.
Hypothesis
A logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in
the form of a testable statement.
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A STUDY OF CUSTOMER SATISFACTION TOWARDS
SERVICE QUALITY IN AIRASIA MALAYSIA

Example
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 Example: Factors that influence communication among
members of Delta airlines
Delta Airlines Four important factors that seem to have influenced poor
communication among the cockpit crew members themselves, poor coordination
between ground staff and cockpit crew, minimal training given to the cockpit crew,
and management philosophy that encouraged a decentralized structure
Communication among
cockpit members

Air-safety
Communication between
violations
ground control and
cockpit
Decentralization

Training of cockpit crew

Independent variable
Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Dependent variable
 Study Design
Target
Research Population Data Data
Sampling Instrumentation
design Units of Collection Analysis
Analysis

1) Probability or 1) Questionnaire 1) Interview

1) Type of 1) Target Non Probability 1) Edit raw data
Research population sampling 2) How to
2) Observation
Exploratory, collect data 2) Categorize
Causal 2) Sampling 3) Distribute and Coding
Frame list of 1) Type of sample 3) Questions
questionnair
Research elements from Eg: Simple based on
2) Philosophy e via mail 3) Use SPSS
which to Random Literature
Positivism or select Sampling 4) Pilot testing and enter
4) Fixed
Interpretivism alternative Rectify data
2) Sample size design
3) Approach 3) Sampling Unit questions or 4) Reliability
Deductive or element errors Testing
Open ended
inductive subject to 5) Full scale
selection 5) Norminal,
4) Strategy survey 5) Descriptive
Ordinal and
Survey, Case Interval scales statistics
Study
5) Choice 6) Likert Scale 6) Correlations
Quantitative or for responses
(1-5)
Qualitative or 7) Regression
Mixed 7) Reliability
6) Primary or and Validity
Secondary
Time Horizon
7) Framework
developed
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 Tutorial
1. Working in groups, read the attached
sample of research (or any other past
research) and explain the
methodology used.

Research philosophy
Research Approach
Research Purpose
Research
State strategy Methodology
your Research
Choice of research
Time Horizon
Population and sampling
Instruments/Questionnaire
Procedures/Data Collection
Data Analysis
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 Tutorial
1. Working in groups, read the attached
sample of research (or any other past
research) and explain the
methodology used.

Research philosophy
Research Approach
Research Purpose
Research
State strategy Methodology
your Research
Choice of research
Time Horizon
Population and sampling

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