MOVEMENT OF SUBTANCES ACROSS

PLASMA MEMBRANE
What is isotonic solution?
An isotonic solution is a
solution in which the
concentration of solutes in the
solution is the same to the
concentration of solutes within
the cell,
 What is hypotonic
solution?
A hypotonic solution is a
solution in which the
concentration of solutes in the
solution is less than the
concentration of solutes within
the cell.
 What is hypertonic
solution?
A hypertonic solution is a solution
in which the concentration of
solutes in the solution is higher
than the concentration of solutes
within the cell.
 4

1 Water is taken up by osmosis

and the flaccid cell
Water diffuses becomes turgid again
out from the vacuole deplasmolysis
by osmosis

Effect of hypertonic
solution in plant cell
3
Plasmolysed plant
2 become turgid again
Both of the vacuole by immersing
cytoplasm shrink & the plant in
the plasma membrane hypotonic solution
pulls away from the cell wall,
process called plasmolysis
 Effect of hypotonic
solution in plant cell

Vacuole gains water,

Water diffuses the plasma membrane
into the large central pushes against
vacuole by osmosis the rigid cell wall

This causes the large

The cell is said
central vacuole
to be turgid
to expand and swell up
 Effect of hypertonic
solution on animal cell

Water diffuses
out from the cell The cell shrink
by osmosis and being crenation
 Effect of hypotonic
solution in animal cell

Water enter the cell The bursting of

causing It to swell up red blood cell
and eventually burst. is known as haemolysis.

The plasma membrane

is too thin & delicate to
withstand the
osmotic pressure.
Hypertonic solution Isotonic solution Hypotonic solution
Movement of Substances Across
the Plasma Membrane

Page 20 & 21
(Practical Book)
 OBJECTIVE
To investigate the movement of
substances across a semi-permeable
membrane
 PROBLEM STATEMENT
What is the size of molecules that can
move across a semi-permeable?
 HYPOTHESIS
A small size molecule () can
move across through semi-permeable
membrane but big size molecule
() cannot move across through
semi-permeable membrane.
 VARIABLES
1. MANIPULATED :
- Size of the molecules.

2. RESPONDING :
- Colour changes of the solutions.

1. FIXED/CONTROLLED :
- Volume of glucose solution.
 TECHNIQUE
Carry out food test for the presence of
glucose and starch using Benedicts
solution and iodine solution and record the
result.
 PROCEDURE
1. Soak the visking tubing
2. Tie one end of visking tubing with thread
tightly.
3. Record the colour of solutions.
4. Fill .ml glucose solution and .ml
starch solution into the visking tubing.
5. Tie the other end of the visking tubing
tightly.
5. Immerse the visking tubing into a beaker
containing .ml distilled water and
..ml iodine solution.
6. After 40 minutes, take out the visking
tubing from the beaker and put it in a dry
beaker. Record the colour of the solutions.
7. Carry out the Benedicts test for both
solution (solution inside the visking tubing
and inside the beaker)
8. Record all the results in the table.
 RESULTS

Contents Original Final Benedicts

colour colour test

Visking
tubing

Beaker
Applications of osmosis in everyday life.

A) Plant cell

If plant are given to much fertilizer which

hypertonic to the cell sap of the root water
diffuses from the cell sap into the soil by
osmosis and the cell are plasmolysed

A wilting plant eventually dies if the plant is

not watered immediately
 B) Animal cell

Fish can be preserved longer in the

hypertonic solution (salt solution)
because water diffuses out by osmosis
and the fish becomes dehydrated.

Without water microorganism cannot live.

 Appreciating the movement of
substances across the plasma
membrane

The movement of substances across the

plasma membrane occurs in a
continuous and controlled manner
To maintain proper function of the
plasma membrane and the cell as a
whole, it is essential for us to take care of
our food and water intake
CHAPTER 3
 The permeability of the plasma
membrane
Plasma membrane is a semi permeable membrane

Some substance can move across the

membrane freely while others cannot.

The movement of the substance through the plasma

membrane occurs through
- lipid bilayer
- pore protein
- carried by carrier protein
 Factors that influence the permeability of the
plasma membrane depends on

The size of the molecules

The polarity of the molecules
 There are molecules that can easily pass
through the plasma membrane

1. Lipid-soluble molecules 2. Non-polar molecules

such as such as
-Glycerol Water
-Fatty acid Carbon dioxide
-Vitamin A, D, E, K Oxygen
-Steroid type hormones
Substance that has large water-soluble molecules and ions can
pass through the membrane with the help of the pore proteins
and carrier proteins

Carrier protein
Pore protein

Carrier proteins have sites that can bind to specific molecules such
as glucose
The movement of substances across
the plasma membrane : PASSIVE
TRANSPORT

Page 44
 PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Definition :
- Movement of some substances across the
plasma membrane without any input of energy
by the cell.
Types of passive transport
1. Simple diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated diffusion
 1. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
Net movement of molecules/ions
from a region of higher conc. to a lower
concentration /going down a conc. gradient
until an equilibrium is achieved.
 1.SIMPLE DIFFUSION

Example : Gaseous exchange between

the alveoli and blood capillaries.

Higher Oxygen Alveolus

Concentration

Movement of Oxygen

Lower Oxygen
concentration
Structure of alveolus
Blood capillaries
 2. OSMOSIS

Net movement of freely moving water

molecules from a region of low solute conc. to
a high solute conc. through a semi-permeable
membrane until an equilibrium is achieved.
 2. OSMOSIS
High water concentration refers to a
solution with a low concentration of
solute in the water
Low water concentration refers to a high
concentration of solute in the water
The semi-permeable membrane is
permeable to water but impermeable to
contain solutes such as sucrose molecules
 Examples: Absorption of water by root hairs of a plant
High water Low water concentration / High
concentration / Low solute concentration
solute concentration

root hairs of
a plant
 3. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Movement of molecules or ions from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration with the aid of carrier proteins and
pores.
Does not require energy.
Carrier proteins are spesific as each can only
combine with a certain type of molecule.
Pore proteins form pores or channels through which
small dissolved particles, especially ion can diffuse
across the plasma membrane.
Example Absorption of digested food in the villus
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Movement of molecules or ions against the concentration
gradient across the plasma membranes with the aid of
carrier proteins.

The energy from ATP that is generated during respiration

in the mitochondria.

The carrier protein changes shape when the phosphate

group from the ATP molecule binds to it. Then, the solute
is moved across the membrane.

Example ion intake by root hairs of a plant.

 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING PASSIVE
AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT

1. - Molecules / ions more 1. - Molecules / ions more

from a region of higher from a region of lower
concentration to a concentration to a
region of lower region of higher
concentration. concentration.

2. - Does not energy 2. - Needs energy

3. - Follow the 3. - Against the

concentration gradient concentration gradient.
 CHAPTER 4:

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
OF THE CELL
 The elements in the cell
Chief elements of Ions Trace elements
organic
compounds
H Hydrogen Na2+ Sodium Mn Manganese
C Carbon Mg2+ Magnesium Fe Iron
N Nitrogen Cl- Chlorine Co Cobalt
O Oxygen K+ Potassium Cu Copper
P Phosphorus Ca2+ Calcium Zn Zinc
S Sulphur
The chemical compounds
in the cell
Water
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Nucleic acids
Mineral salts
Vitamins
 Cell composition
Organic compounds Inorganic compounds

Chemical compounds Chemical compounds

that contain the carbon that do not contain
element.
carbon.

Examples:
Carbohydrates Examples:
Proteins Water
Lipids Mineral salts
Nucleic acids
Vitamin
 The importance of
organic compounds in the cell

1. Carbohydrates - major source of

energy in the cell.
2. Proteins - growth.
3. Lipids - constituent of protoplasm.
4. Nucleic acids - store genetic information
in the form of a code.
5. Vitamins maintain health.
 The importance of water
in the cell
Main constituent of protoplasm
Regulate body temperature
As a shock-absorber to protect body organs
Medium for biochemical reactions
Helps in lubrication
Transport medium in blood, lymphatic, excretory
and digestive systems and in the vascular
tissues of plants
The maintenance of a stable internal
environment within a living organism
4.2 UNDERSTANDING
CARBOHYDRATES
Page 62
THE ELEMENTS OF
CARBOHYDRATE

CARBON
HYDROGEN
OXYGEN
 TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES

i) MONOSACCHARIDES
ii) DISACCHARIDES
iii) POLYSACCHARIDE
 (i) MONOSACCHARIDES

THE SIMPLEST TYPE OF

CARBOHYDRATES

EXAMPLES - GLUCOSE,
FRUCTOSE AND GALACTOSE
 (ii) DISACCHARIDES

FORMED WHEN TWO MONO-

SACCHARIDES COMBINE BY
MEANS OF CONDENSATION

BROKEN INTO THEIR

CONSTITUENT
MONOSACCHARIDES BY
HYDROLYSIS
 EXAMPLES OF
DISACCHARIDES

MALTOSE (glucose + glucose)

LACTOSE (glucose + galactose)
SUCROSE (glucose + fructose)
(MaLaS)
 EXAMPLES OF
POLYSACCHARIDES

STARCH

GLYCOGEN

CELLULOSE
 WHAT ARE PROTEINS?

Large complex macromolecules made up

of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen atoms
Some proteins also contain sulphur and
phosphorus.
 STRUCTURES OF PROTEINS

PRIMARY STRUCTURE
- linear sequence of amino acids in
polypeptide chain

SECONDARY STRUCTURE
- polypeptide chain is coiled to form an
alpha-helix or folded into beta-pleated
sheets
 STRUCTURES OF
PROTEINS
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
- the helix chain or beta-pleated sheets folded into
a three-dimensional shape

QUARTENARY STRUCTURE
- the combination of two or more tertiary
structure polypeptide chains to form one large
and complex protein molecule.
MONOMER OF PROTEIN

AMINO ACIDS

TWO MOLECULES OF AMINO

ACIDS FORM A DIPEPTIDE
 THE FORMATION & BREAKDOWN
OF PEPTIDES & POLYPEPTIDES

condensation
Amino acid + amino acid dipeptide + water
hydrolysis

hydrolysis
Polypeptides + water dipeptides or amino acids
 TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS

TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

* Cannot be synthesised by the body * Can be synthesised by the body
* obtained from diet
* source : animal protein
WHAT ARE LIPIDS?

Energy rich compounds made of

Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Some lipid also contain
Phosphorus and Nitrogen

Insoluble in water

Soluble in organic solvents

 Types of Lipid
Fats and oils (triglycerides), waxes,
phospholipids and steroids
Waxes: the cuticle epidermis of leaves,
fruits and seed of some plants
(waterproof)
Sebum: excreted from oil gland to
softened our skin
Phospholipid: plasma membrane
 Types of Lipid
Steroids: organic compounds
: eg. Cholesterol, Hormone
(Testosterone, oesterogen, progesterone)
 The Formation of Triglycerides

3 molecules of fatty acid + 1 molecule of

Glycerol

Condensation
3Fatty acid + glycerol triglycerides +
water
Hydrolysis
 The Differences between saturated
fats and unsaturated fats
Saturated Item Unsaturate
fats d fats
no The presence of double bonds yes
between carbon atoms in fatty
acid

no Ability to react with an yes

additional hydrogen atom
Solid Conditions at room Liquid
temperature
higher Cholesterol level lower

butter Examples Corn oil

4.6 The Importance of Chemical Composition in Cells

Chemical Main Function Consequence of

substances deficiency
Carbohydrates Supply energy. Become very weak
Form part of the cell
nucleus.

Proteins Make new cell. Muscles are poorly

Repair & replace developed.
damaged & worn-out Become very weak.
tissues. Kwasyiokor.
Make enzymes &
hormones.
 Chemical Main Function Consequence of
substances deficiency
Lipids Supply energy. Cell membrane will
not be formed.
Form part of cell
membrane. Certain vitamins
will not be absorbed.
Help absorb
certain vitamins.

Enzymes Biological All the biological

catalysts. reactions will
proceed too slowly.
 What would happen
if our bodies lack
a particular compound
such as proteins?
Without proteins

New cell cannot

be produced

Enzymes cannot
be synthesised
Inhibit our
body

All biochemical reaction

SUSTAIN will proceed too
LIFE slowly
 UNIT 4.5
UNDERSTANDING ENZYMES
PAGE 70
 ENZYMES
The role of enzymes in organisms
Cells carries out thousands of
biochemical reactions [metabolism]
Metabolism reaction starts with the
substrate molecules undergo the reaction
Ends with a product or products
Enzymes are biological catalysts that
speed up biochemical reaction in the cells
 The general characteristics of
enzymes
1. Enzymes are proteins which are
synthesised by living organism
Enzymes reaction:
enzyme
substrate products
2. Enzymes unchanged or undestroyed at
the end of the reactions
3. Enzymes have specific site called active
site
- bind to specific substrates
3. Enzymes are highly specific
- each enzyme can catalyse one kind of
substrate
example:
- strach molecules can fit into the active
site of amylase but not sucrase
4. Enzymes are needed in the small
quantities
5. Enzyme-catalysed reaction are reversible
 Enzymes Inhibitors
Slow down or completely stop the enzyme
activity
example:
- heavy metals such as lead and mercury
 Cofactors
Helper molecules for enzymes to function
well
There are inorganic and organic cofactors
Example:
- inorganic: ferum and copper
- organic: vitamin B
 Naming of Enzymes
According to the name of substrate it catalyses
Adding the suffix ase at the end of the name of
substrate
Example:
Enzymes Substrates
Lactase Lactose
Sucrase Sucrose
Lipase Lipid
 Example:
sucrose + water sucrase glucose +
fructose
Other enzyme that were named before a
systematic way of naming enzmes was
formed.
Example:
- pepsin, trypsin and rennin
 The sites of enzyme
synthesis
Ribosomes are the site of enzyme
synthesis.
The synthesis information of enzymes is
carried by the DNA.
DNA are codes to make different
enzymes.
Messenger RNA is formed to translate the
codes into a sequence of amino acids.
Amino acids are bonded together to form
specific enzymes.
 Intracellular and
extracellular enzymes
Intracellular enzymes- synthesised and retained
in the producer cell.
Are found in the cytoplasm, nucleus ,
mitochondria and chloroplast
Example:
oxidoreductase catalyses biological oxidation
- reduction in the mitochondria
 Extracellular enzyme- synthesised in the
cell but secreted from the cell to work
externally.
Example:
- digestive enzymes produced by the
pancreas are not used by cells in the
pancreas
 Production of extracellular
enzymes
Synthesised in the ribosomes .
Transported through the spaces between the
rough endoplasmic reticulum [ER]
Protein depart from the rough ER wrapped in
vesicles that bud of from the side of the rough
ER
These transport vesicles fuse with the
membrane of the Golgi apparatus.
 Vesicles empty their contents into the membranous
space
These protein are then modified during their transport
in the Golgi apparatus
Example:
- sugar + protein glycoproteins
Secretory vesicles containing these modified proteins
bud off from the Golgi membrane travel to the plasma
membrane
These vesicles will then fuse with the plasma
membrane before releasing the protein outside the
cell as enzyme
 Extracellular enzymes
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

nucleus

Golgi
apparatus Secretory
vesicle

ribosome

Transport
vesicle
 Mechanism of Enzyme
Action
Enzyme action is a very specific reaction.
Cause of the unique 3-dimensional (3D)
shape of an enzyme (active site)
This specificity is due to the active site of
the enzyme (specific in shaped so that
only a certain substrate molecule will fit
into it)
 The substrate molecules bind to the enzyme at
these active sites, forming an enzyme-substrate
complex.
In these complex, the substrate molecules was
changed into products.
After that, the active sites will release the
products.
Then, the enzyme is ready to bind another
substrate molecule and run through the catalytic
cycle once again.
This mechanism is known as lock-and-key
hypothesis.
 Lock-And-Key Hypothesis
Substrate bind to the enzyme same as a key
open the lock.
The substrate molecules represent as the key
and enzyme represent as the lock.
It can explain why enzymes are very sensitive
to the temperature and pH changing.
The catalytic cycle of an
enzyme
 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Every enzyme has different structure and

reaction mechanisms.
Generally, all enzyme activities are affected by
4 factors:
i. Temperature
ii. pH
p.E.S.T.
iii. Enzyme concentration
iv: Substrate concentration
 1. Temperature
The rate of enzyme-catalyses reaction increases
with the increase of temperature, until a point
called the optimum temperature.

Most human enzymes have the optimum

temperature range between 37C - 40C.

Below this temperature , enzyme is not active.

Above this temperature, the enzyme start to
denature.
After 60C the enzyme reaction will be stop.
 Relation the mechanism of enzyme
action with temperature
When the temperature increase above the
optimum temperature, the bonds are too
weak to maintain the enzymes shape against
the increased random movement of the
atoms in the enzyme.
Chemical bond in the enzyme molecules are
changed followed by the 3-D structure of
active sites.
So, the enzyme cannot bind with the
substrate molecule again.
 Effect of temperature
to enzyme activity
Reaction rate
Optimum Temperature

10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature (C)
 2. pH
Enzyme is sensitive to changes in pH.

Generally, most enzymes are active at pH

6-8.

However, pepsin only active at the acidic

pH (pH 1- pH 2) while trypsin only active at
the alkali pH (pH 7- pH 9).
 Relation the mechanism of
enzyme action with pH
Ionic interactions between oppositely
charged (+) and (-) are hold enzymes
together.
A change in pH can alter the charges on
the active sites of the enzymes and the
substrates surfaces.
This can reduce the ability of both
molecules to bind each other.
 Effect of pH to enzyme activity
Reaction rate

Amylase Trypsin
Pepsin

Copy Figure 4.13

Page 74
pH
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
 3. Substrate
concentration
Rate of reaction will increase if the
substrate concentration was increase.
Many substrates can combine with active
site of the enzyme molecules in one time.
The rate of reaction is directly proportional
to the substrate concentration until at
maximum rate.
 After maximum rate, reaction rate cannot
increase although substrate concentration
is increasing.
This because of the limited number of
enzyme.
So the CONCENTRATION OF ENZYME
become a limiting factor.
 Affected of substrate
concentration to substrate
Reaction rate
activity
Maximum rate

Copy Figure 4.14

Page 74
Substrate
concentration
 4. Enzyme concentration
Rate of reaction will increase if the
substrate concentration was increase.
More active sites of enzyme are available
for the substrates molecules in one time.
The rate of reaction is directly proportional
to the enzyme concentration until at
maximum rate.
 After maximum rate, reaction rate cannot
increase although enzyme concentration is
increasing.
This because of the limited number of
substrate.
So the CONCENTRATION OF
SUBSTRATE become a limiting factor.
 Affected of enzyme
concentration to enzyme
Reaction rate
activity
Maximum rate

Enzyme concentration
 The uses of enzyme
Enzyme technology
Used in the manufactories such as:
- food, leather and textile industries
- manufacturing of detergents

Example:
- protease is used to tenderise meat
- biological enzymes are used in washing
powder
 BIOLOGY
FORM 4
CHAPTER 5
CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS
Cell division can be divided into two stage.

mitosis

a) nuclear division
meiosis

b) cytoplasmic division cytokinesis

 The significance of mitosis
The number of chromosomes present in
the nucleus of each cell is constant for the
the species concerned.

The two daughter cells produced by

mitosis are genetically identical to each
other and two the parent cell.
 The Cell Cycle
1. Interphase
1. G1
2. S
3. G2
2. Mitotic phase
CYCLE OF CELL
 MITOSIS HAVE 4 PHASE
PROPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
 INTERPHASE (G1)
Synthesis of proteins & cytoplasmic
organelles (mitochondrion & chloroplast)
High in metabolic rate.
Chromosomes are not condensed &
appear as thread-like structure
(Chromatin)
 INTERPHASE (S)
Synthesis & replication of DNA
Each duplicated chromosome are called
sister chromatids.
 INTERPHASE (G2)
The cell continues grow & remain the
active metabolic rate.
The cell accumulates energy for mitosis
process.
 CHROMOSOME
Thread-like
structures.
Made up of long
DNA molecule.
Come in pairs.
HUMAN CHROMOSOMES
 INTERPHASE
2 CHROMOSOMES
 PROPHASE
Chromatin in the nucleus
1) Chromosome
begins to condense and
- Condense
becomes visible in the
- light
Tightly coiled
microscope as
- chromosomes.
Shorter & thicker
- Visible
The nucleolus
under the light microscope
disappears. Centrioles
2) Spindle
beginFibres:
moving to opposite
- Begin
ends oftothe
formcell&and
extend
fibers
3) Centrioles:
extend from the
- centromeres.
Migrates to opposite poles
- Some fibers cross
The chromatids arethe cell
attached at centromeres.
to form the mitotic
spindle.
4) The nucleolus disappears & nuclear
membrane disintegrates.
PROPHASE
 METAPHASE
Proteins attach to the centromeres
creating the kinetochores.
Microtubules attach at the
1) Chromosome
kinetochores and the
chromosomes begin moving.
- Lined up on the metaphase plate.
Spindle fibers align the
chromosomes along the middle of
2) Spindle Fibres:
the cell nucleus. This line is
- referred
Fully formed.
to as the metaphase plate.
This organization helps to ensure
that in the next phase, when the
3) Centrioles:
chromosomes are separated, each
- new
At opposite poles.
nucleus will receive one copy
of each chromosome.
- The chromatids are attached
at centromeres.
METAPHASE
 ANAPHASE
The paired chromosomes
separate at the
kinetochores and move to
opposite sides of the cell.
1) Chromosome
- Motion
2 sister results from separate
chromatids a at centromere
- combination
Once separated,of the chromatids are called
kinetochore movement
daughter chromosomes
along the spindle
microtubules
2) Spindle Fibres: and through
- the physical
Become interaction
shorter and pullofthe sister chromatids
polar microtubules.
ANAPHASE
 TELOPHASE
Chromatids arrive at
opposite poles of cell,
and new membranes
1) Chromosome
form around the daughter
- 2 sets ofThe
nuclei. chromosomes reach at opposite poles.
- Start to uncoil. disperse
chromosomes
- Less visible under microscope.
and are no longer visible
under
2) Spindle the light
Fibres:
- microscope.
Disappears. The spindle
fibers disperse, and
3) Thecytokinesis
nucleolus & nuclear
or the membrane are reform.
partitioning of the cell
may also begin during
this stage
 TELOPHASE
2 CHROMOSOMES IN EACH CELL
 GENE
Small portion of a long DNA molecule.
Carry genetic information.
Come in pairs.
gene
CYTOKINESIS (ANIMAL CELL)
By the formation of
CLEAVAGE
FURROW. A fiber
ring composed of a
protein called actin
around the center of
the cell contracts
pinching the cell into
two daughter cells,
each with one
nucleus.
CYTOKINESIS (PLANT CELL)
- By the formation
of CELL PLATE.
The rigid wall
synthesised
between the two
daughter cells and
grows outwards
until its edge.
 Mitotic phase
include include

Follow by
Cytokinesis
Mitosis
in in

in in
Animal cell Plant cell

Starting by Starting by
Animal cell Plant cell
Cytoplasm Vesicle fuse
involves involves contract
forming forming
centrioles No centrioles
Cleavage Cell plate
furrow
produce
produce Two daughter
cell
 Electric Shock
Cloning process

Transfer of nucleus
A from a somatic cell
Ovum cell
with the
nucleus
Somatic Cell remove

Implantation of
the embryo into
the surrogate
The surrogate mothers C mothers
give birth baby same
genetic as A
 Cloning
Advantages Disadvantages

1.Many clones 1.No genetic variation

2.Not Involve pollination 2.Avoid natural selection

3.Good genetic material can 3.High risk mutation

be passed to the off spring

4.Clones have same immunity

 MEIOSIS

DIPLOID
2n=46

FERTILISATION
HAPLOID HAPLOID
n=23 n=23
or

DIPLOID
2n=46
 MEIOSIS
All individuals of the same
species have the same
chromosomal number.

In order for the offspring to

have the same
chromosomal number as
their parents, the cell must
undergo meiosis.
 MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the process of
nuclear division.

It reduces the number of

chromosomes in new cell to
half the number of
chromosome in the parent
cell.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis ensures that
the diploid number of
chromosomes is
maintained from one
generation to the
next.
THE IMPORTANCE OF
MEIOSIS
 Meiosis occur
Importance of meiosis :
Crossing i. At
i. Produce ovary
over
ovum between
ii. Produce
ii. At
sperm
testis
homologous chromosome
iii. Atpollen
iii. Produce anther
 ONE parent
The number cell
of chromosome
will producecells are
In daughter
mpat daughter
eparuh(half) cells.
from parent cell.
 MEIOSIS
The type of cell that undergoes meiosis in human,
animals & plants
Human/Animals Plants

Cell
sperm ovum pollen ovule

Organ testes ovaries anthers ovaries

 MEIOSIS I : Prophase I
The chromosomes begin to
condense.
They become shorter, thicker and
clearly visible.
The homologous chromosomes come
together to form bivalents through a
process called synapsis.
 MEIOSIS I : Prophase I
Each bivalent is SYNAPSIS
visible under the
microscope as a four-
part structure called a
tetrad.
A tetrad consists of
two homologous TETRAD
chromosomes, each
made up of two sister
chromatids.
 MEIOSIS I : Prophase I
Non- sister CROSSING OVER
chromatids exchange
segments of DNA in a
process known as
crossing over.
The points at which
segments of CHIASMA
chromatids cross over
are called chiasmata
(plural)
 MEIOSIS I : Prophase I
Crossing over
results in a new
combination of
genes on a
chromosome.

New combination
of genes
 MEIOSIS I : Metaphase I
The homologous chromosomes are lined
up side by side as tetrads on the
metaphase plate.

The centromere does not divide.

 MEIOSIS I : Anaphase I

The spindle fibres pull the homologous

chromosomes away from one another and
move them to the opposites poles of the
cell.
 MEIOSIS I : Telophase I
The chromosomes arrive at the poles.
Cytokinesis occurs .
The spindle fibres disappear.
The nuclear membrane reappears to
surround each set of chromosomes which is
haploid.
 MEIOSIS II : Prophase II
The nuclear membranes of the daughter
cells disintegrate again.
The spindle fibres re-form in each
daughter cell.
 MEIOSIS II : Metaphase II
The chromosomes are lined up
randomly on the metaphase plate with
the sister chromatids of each
chromosome pointing towards the
opposite poles.
 MEIOSIS II : Anaphase II
The centromere of the sister chromatids
finally separated.
The sister chromatids of each
chromosome are now individual
chromosomes.
The chromosomes move towards the
opposite poles of the cell.
 MEIOSIS II : Telophase II
The nucleoli and nuclear membranes
re-form.
Cytokinesis follows and formed four
haploid daughter cell.
These haploid cells will develop into
gametes.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
BETWEEN
MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS
Mitosis meiosis
Similarit
y
Division process

Differences

Occur

Necessity

synapsis

Nucleus division
 Mitosis meiosis
Similarit
y
Division process

Differences

Somatic cell Occur Gamete cell

Growth and to replace Necessity To produce gamete

the dead cell

Not occur synapsis occur

One Nucleus division Two

Not occur Crossing over Occur at the end
of prophase

2 Numbers of daughter 4

Diploid (2n) Numbers of chromosome Haploid (n)

in the daughter cells

Same as Genetic contains of Different from

parent cells daughter cells parent cell

No variation Genetic variation Has variation

genetic
 COMPARE AND CONTRAST
MEIOSIS I & MEIOSIS II
Meiosis I Phase Meiosis II

Replication of No replication of
chromosomes Early chromosomes
Prophase

Synapsis between No synapsis

homologous
chromosomes
 COMPARE AND CONTRAST MEIOSIS I &
MEIOSIS II
Meiosis I Phase Meiosis II

Chromosomes seen as Chromosomes

tetrad (4 chromatid) End seen as two
which are attach at prophase chromatid tied by
chiasmata centromere

2n chromosomes n chromosomes
 Meiosis I Phase Meiosis II

Tetrad are lined up on the Metaphase Individual

metaphase plate chromosome
( two chromatids )
lined up on the
metaphase plate

Chromosomes Anaphase Chromatids are

homologous are pulled separated at the
away from one another centromere and
and move to the opposite moved to the
poles of the cell opposite poles
 Meiosis I Phase Meiosis II

Only one cytokinesis Two cytokinesis

occur Telophase occur

Two non-identical Four non- identical

nucleus/cells are formed nucleus/cells are
formed
6.1 Types Of Nutrition
 Definition
Nutrition refers to the process by
which organisms obtain energy and
nutrients from food, for growth,
maintenance and repair of damaged
tissues.
Nutrients are the substances
required for the nourishment of an
organism
 Nutrition

divided into

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

divided into

such as

Photosynthesis Chemosynthesis

Holozoic Saprophytism Parasitism

 Autotrophs
This group of organism synthesize
complex organic compounds from raw,
simple inorganic substances
They are able to make their own food,
either by photosynthesis or by
chemosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis
Photos : light
Process through which green plants
produce organic molecules from carbon
dioxide and water using light as a source
of energy
These green plants are called
photoautotroph.
 Chemosynthesis
Chemo : chemical
Process by which certain types of bacteria
synthesize organic compounds using
energy obtain from oxidized inorganic
substances such as hydrogen sulphide and
ammonia
 Heterotrophs
Heteros : other
Are organisms that cannot synthesise their own
nutrients
This organism obtains energy through the intake
and digestion of organic substances, normally
plant and animal tissues.
This type of nutrition is called heterotrophic
nutrition
May practice holozoic nutrition, saprophytism or
parasitism
 Holozoic nutrition
Holo : like ; Zoon : animal
Holozoic animals feed on solid organic
material which is then digested and
absorbed into their bodies.
They can be split into
1. Herbivors plant eaters
2. Carnivores animal eaters
3. Omnivores both plant and animal
eaters
 Saprophytism
Saprophytes feed on dead and decaying
organic matter.
These organisms release digestive
enzymes to digest the food externally
before the nutrients are absorbed.
Saprophytes are very important because
they act as the decomposers allowing
nutrients to be recycled.
 Parasitism
A parasite is an organism which obtains
food material from living body of another
organism, called the host.
The parasite absorbs readily digested food
from its host.
Examples of parasites include fleas and
lice, and the tapeworms (2) which infest
the human alimentary canal.
BALANCED DIET?

Refer to page 103

Factors that affect total calories
required by an individual
Sex :
more
Man need energy than women
because the metabolic rate in is higher
than .

Body size :
A big-sized person need energy than
small-sized person because the rate of heat
loss is higher in smaller-sized person.
 Physical activity/Occupation :
A person who is very active and does heavy
work needs energy than a person who is
moderately active.

Pregnancy and lactation:

Pregnant women needs ..energy to
support the growing foetuses.
Breast-feeding mothers need ..energy
to produce milk for their .
 Surrounding temperature/Climate :
People who lives in cold climate need energy
than people in hot climate because to maintain their
body .

Age :
Growing children and teenagers need energy
than adult.
 Daily energy requirement

The energy content of a particular type of food

can be determined by burning as known mass
of the food in presence of oxygen in a bomb
calorimeter.

The unit of energy value is

joule per gram (J g-1)
 Calculation
The energy value is calculated using the following formula

Energy value = mass of water (g) x specific latent heat of water (J g-1 oC-1) x difference of temperature (oC)
mass of food (g)

4.2 joules of energy are needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water

by 1oC
 VITAMINS
2 groups:
(i) Water-soluble
- Cannot be stored in the body.
- Have to be supplied in daily diet.
(ii) Fat-soluble (ADEK)
- Can be stored in the body (in fat).
- Are dangerous if too much stored in the body.
 Functions and Sources of Roughage
Roughage (dietary fibre) refers to the indigestible
fibrous material (cellulose) that are present in our diet.
Roughage is important in helping the process of
peristalsis.
Taking enough fibre and drinking sufficient water can
prevent constipation.
Good sources of fibre include fruits and vegetables,
cereals and wholegrain bread.
 Functions of Water in the body
Function of water:
Medium for various chemical reactions
Component of blood, lubricants in our joints and
digestive juices.
Transporting agent for digested food, excretory
products, hormones.
Regulates body temperature.
Solvent for inorganic salts and organic compounds.
 MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition is a result of dietary condition when a
person eats less, more or wrong proportions than
the body requires.
 Effect of deficiency
Classes of Effect of Symptoms
food deficiency
Protein Kwashiorkor, Very thin and Distended
marasmus stomach.

Calcium Osteoporosis Porous bones.

Vitamin C Scurvy Swollen, bleeding gums, tooth

loss.

Ferum/iron Anaemia Pale and weak body.

Vitamin D, Rickets Soften and weak bones in

calcium and children.
phosphorus
 Effects of excessive food intake
Classes of food Health problem Symptoms

Carbohydrates Obesity Fat body

and lipids

Sugar Diabetes Blood glucose

mellitus level raise
6.4 FOOD DIGESTION
Page 111
 Complex substances that need to be digested:

CARBOHYDRATES LIPIDS
PROTEIN

All these complex organic molecules are too large to

pass through plasma membranes and enter body
cells. Therefore, they have to be broken down into
simpler and soluble molecules that are small enough
to be absorb by the cells. This process is called
DIGESTION.
 Recall Activity
Substance End Products
Carbohydrates G, F, Gal

Proteins Amino acids

Lipids Fatty acids and

Glycerol
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats

Location Glands/ Digestive Substrates & pH

organs juice Products

MOUTH Salivary Saliva Amylase Alkaline

Starch Maltose
gland
Location Glands/ Digestive Substrates & pH
organs juice Products
STOMACH Gall Gastric Pepsin Acidic
bladder Juice -Protein Polypeptides

Rennin
-Caseinogen Casein
Location Glands/ Digestive Substrates & pH
organs juice Products
Duodenum Pancreas Pancreatic Amylase Alkaline
juice -Starch Maltose

Trypsin
-Polypeptides peptides

Lipase
-Fats fatty acids +
glycerol
 Location Glands/ Digestion Substrates & Products pH
organs juice
SMALL Intestinal peptidase/Erepsin Alkaline
INTESTINAL juice -Peptides amino
acids
maltase
-maltose glucose
sucrase
-Sucrose g+f
lactase
-Lactose g + gal
Other substances that aid the process of digestion:

HYDROCHLORIC To provide acidic medium (pH 2.0)

ACID
- optimal for the action of the
stomach enzyme.
To kill microorganisms.
To stop the activity of salivary amylase.

BILE ~Emulsion of lipids/fats.

~To break lipids into small droplets.
Structure of villus
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN
RUMINANTS
-Ruminants: COWS, GOATS
-It has 4 stomachs RUMEN

RETICULUM

OMASUM

ABOMASUM
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN
RODENTS

Rodents: eg; Rabbit, rat

Parts of digestive system

CAECUM APPENDIX
 Digestion of cellulose in
Ruminants & Rodents
RUMINANTS
Bacteria & Protozoa
CELLULOSE SUGAR
Cellulase

IN RUMEN

RODENTS
Bacteria & Protozoa
CELLULOSE SUGAR
Cellulase

IN CAECUM
 Compare and contrast

Human Ruminant Rodent

SIMILARITY

Enzymes are needed

Digestion occurred in alimentary canal
 CONTRAST

Human Ruminant Rodent

1. Mutualism with 1. Mutualism with

1.Without cellulase Microorganisms microorganisms
enzyme which can produce which can produce
cellulase enzyme cellulase enzyme

2. Omnivores 2. Herbivores 2. Herbivores

3. True Stomach 3. Abomasums 3. True stomach

Effects of a defective digestive system on health

Unhealthy Diet
Such as

Junk food
(Low in nutritional value)

High salt High sugar High fat

effect effects effects
- Diabetes -Obesity
High blood pressure - arteriosclerosis - arteriosclerosis
- Heart diseases
 Understanding the
Importance of Macronutrients
and Micronutrients
 Elements required by plants

Macronutrients Micronutrients
Definition Definition
Elements needed in Elements needed in smaller
large quantities or trace amount
Examples Examples
- Nitrogen (N) - Boron (B)
- Phosphorus (P) - Copper (Cu)
- Potassium (K) - Ferum (Fe)
- Calcium (Ca) - Manganese (Mn)
- Magnesium (Mg) - Molybdenum (Mo)
- Sulphur (S) - Zinc (Zn)
 The functions of other macronutrients

Macronutrients Functions
Phosphorus Synthesis of nucleic acids, adenosine
triphosphates (ATP) and phospholipids of
plasma membranes. Acts as a coenzyme in
photosynthesis and respiration.
Potassium Protein synthesis, carbohydrate
metabolism and as a cofactors for many
enzymes. Maintains turgidity in plants.
Calcium A major constituent of the middle lamella of
cell walls. Formations of spindle fibers
during cell divisions.
Magnesium The main structural components of
chlorophyll. Activates many plant enzymes.
Involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
sulphur A components of certain amino acids, a
constituent of vitamin B and some
coenzymes.
The effects of deficiency of other macronutrients

Macronutrients Effects of deficiency

Phosphorus Poor root growth and formation of dull,
dark green leaves. Red or purple spots
on old leaves.
Potassium Reduced protein synthesis, yellow-
edged leaves and premature death of
plants.
Calcium Stunted growth, leaves become distorted
and cupped, areas between leaf veins
become yellow.
Magnesium Yellowing in the regions between the
veins of mature leaves. Red spots on
leaf surface, leaves become cupped.
sulphur General yellowing of the affected leaves
or the entire plant.
 The functions of other micronutrients
Micronutrient Functions
Boron Aids in Calcium ions uptake by roots and
translocation of sugars. Involved in
carbohydrate metabolism and aids in the
germination of pollen grains. Required for
normal mitotic division in the meristems
and act as a cofactor in chlorophyll
synthesis.
copper An important component of enzymes.
Involved in nitrogen metabolism and
photosynthesis. Important for reproductive
growth and flower formation in plants.
Ferum A cofactor in the synthesis of chlorophyll.
Essential for young growing parts of plants.

Manganese An activator of enzymes in photosynthesis,

respiration and also nitrogen metabolism.
 The functions of other micronutrients

Molybdenum involved in nitrogen fixation and

reduction of nitrates during protein
synthesis.

Zinc Formation of leaves, synthesis of

auxin (growth hormone ) and a
cofactor in carbohydrate metabolism.
The effects of deficiency of other micronutrients

Micronutrient Functions
Boron Death of terminal buds and abnormal plant
growth. Leaves become thick, curled and
brittle.
copper Death of tips of young shoots, brown spots
appear on terminal leaves. Plants become
stunted.
Ferum Yellowing of young leaves

Manganese A network of green veins on a light green

background. Brown or grey spots between
the veins.
 The effects of deficiency of other micronutrients

Molybdenum Sclerosis in the areas between the

veins of mature leaves. Pale green
leaves. Reduction in crop yield.

Zinc Mottled leaves with irregular areas

of chlorosis and retarded growth.
6.10 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

PAGE 129
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A brief history of the discovery of photosynthesis
Jean Baptisle Van The plant had grown mainly from the water
Helmount ( 1640) which was added regularly and not the soil

Joseph Priestly (1772) The green plants could restive oxygen

Jen Ingenhousz The importance of sunlight and chlorophyll
in photosynthesis
Jean Senebier (1780) Carbon Dioxide was taken by plants during
photosynthesis
Robert Mayer (1845) Plants convert solar energy into chemical
energy during photosynthesis
Robert Hill (1937) Chloroplasts produce oxygen by splitting
water molecules in the absence of carbon
dioxide
 CO2
Plants require water (from CO2
CO2
the soil) and carbon
dioxide (from the air) to CO2
synthesis food in the
presence of light energy
They also concluded that
plants synthesis
carbohydrates (glucose)
and release oxygen during
H2O H2O
photosynthesis.
H2O
 LEAF STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

Structure Function
Leaf mosaic Enable leaves to receive as much light
as possible.
Lamina Has a large surface area to trap
(flat, thin) sunlight.
Easy for light to penetrate.
Allows diffusion of photosynthesis
gases.
 Structure Function
Xylem Transport water from roots to the
leaf.
Phloem Transport organic products of
photosynthesis away from the
leaf.
Epidermis
-Cuticle Prevent excessive water loss.
(waterproof layer)
 Structure Function
Stomata Allowing the exchange of
gases between the internal
part of the leaf and the
environment.
Mesophyll
-Palisade mesophyll Receive the maximum amount
of light (high density of
chloroplasts)

-Spongy mesophyll Allow easy diffusion of water

and carbon dioxide through the
leaf to the palisade cells.
 Adaptation of plants from different habitats
to carry out photosynthesis
Land Plants
- Have large numbers of stomata on the lower surface of the leaf which allow
maximum absorption of carbon dioxide.
- The chloroplasts are found in the palisade cells and spongy mesophyll cells

Water Plants
- Chloroplasts are found in the leaves and stems.

Float plants - The stomata are mostly distributed on the upper

surface of the leaves.
Aquatic plants - Submerged generally do not have stomata.

Desert Plants
- Reduce leaves with sunken stomata
The mechanism of Photosynthesis
Two main stages
(i) The light reaction
- occurs in the presence of light, involve
photolysis of water.

(ii) The dark reaction

- happen both when there is light and
dark, take place in stroma.
 Chloroplasts contain membranous
structures which are piled up into stacks
called grana.

Grana contain a light-trapping pigment

chlorophyll.

Grana are embedded in a gel-like matrix

called stroma.
 The Mechanism of Photosynthesis
Sunlight
(a) Light reaction

Chlorophyll
Photolysis of
24 H+ 24 H2O 24 OH water
Water
24 e
24 H
24 e 24 OH

12 H2O
6 H2O 6O2
6CO2
Water Oxygen
Carbon 6(CH2O)
dioxide
C6H12O6 (b) Dark reaction
Glucose
The chemical equation of photosynthesis

Light
6H2O + 6CO2 Chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
Water Carbon Glucose Oxygen
dioxide
Comparison between light reaction and dark reaction

Light reaction Dark reaction

1. Take place in grana 1. Take place in stroma
2. Requires light 2. Does not require light
3. Involves photolysis of 3. Does not involve
water photolysis of water
4. Does not use carbon 4. Use carbon dioxide
dioxide
5. Gives out oxygen 5. Does not give out
oxygen
6. No glucose is formed 6. Glucose is formed
 6.12 The Factors Affecting
Photosynthesis
The factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis :

i. Light intensity

ii. Concentration of carbon dioxide

iii. Temperature
Rate of photosynthesis

graph II 0.13% CO2 at 30 C

P graph I Q
0.03% CO2 at 30 C

Light intensity

The effect of light intensity on

the rate of photosynthesis
 The effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

Concentration of CO2 and temperature are

controlled at constant levels, the rate of
photosynthesis is directly proportional to light
intensity up to a certain point.

The light intensity increases, the rate of

photosynthesis increases until it reaches
point P.
 Up to point P, the rate of photosynthesis is
limited by light intensity.

Beyond point P, light intensity is no longer a

limiting factor.

Along PQ, the rate of photosynthesis will not

increase even if light intensity is increased.
Rate of photosynthesis
30oC at high light intensity

30oC at low light intensity

Carbon dioxide concentration

The effect of carbon dioxide concentration

on the rate of photosynthesis
Increase in the carbon dioxide concentration
will increase the rate of photosynthesis and
will constant at a certain point.

After a certain point when the concentration of

carbon dioxide increases, the rate of
photosynthesis will not increase because light
intensity acts as a limiting factor.
 Rate of photosynthesis

Temperature (C)
The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
 The dark reaction of photosynthesis is catalysed by
enzymes and therefore changes in temperature will
affect the rate of photosynthesis.

An increase of 10% in surrounding temperature will

double the rate of photosynthesis.

Optimum temperature are between 25 C to 30 C.

If the temperature is too high, the photosynthesis

enzymes are destroyed and photosynthesis process
stops.
The difference in the rate of photosynthesis in
plants throughout the day
Rate of photosynthesis is high when light intensity and
temperature are high.
Photosynthesis stops at night no light.

Light Temperature Rate of

Intensity photosynthesis

Morning Low Low Low

Midday High High High
Evening Low Low Low
NUTRITION
TECHNOLOGY USED
IN FOOD PRODUCTION
 The Need for Improving
the Quality & Quantity of Food
because

The rapid increase in the country population

imposes greater demand on food supply

and

Ministry as also given priority to the production of food

such as rice, fruits, vegetables, fishes and poultry.
 The Effort by Various Agencies
to Diversify Food Production

ULAM MUSHROOM
MAIN SOURCES
OF PROTEIN
Examples:
Fresh leaves, fruits -Button mushroom
and other plant parts
-Shittake mushroom
which are eaten raw
Examples: -Aballone mushroom
-Chicken
-Rabbit meat
-Ostrich meat
Examples: -Prawn
-Pegaga (Centella asiatica) -Quail meat
-Shoot of papaya -fish
Kacang botor
Petai (Parkia speciosa)
 3) Aeroponics
4) Breeding
2) Hydroponics of plants
5) Animal
1) Direct breeding
seeding

METHODS USED TO IMPROVE

THE QUALITY & QUANTITY
OF FOOD PRODUCTION

10) Biological 6) Tissue

control culture
9) Crop 7) Genetic
rotation engineering

8) Soil
management
METHODS USED TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY &
QUANTITY OF FOOD PRODUCTION

1) Direct Seeding

Seeds are sown directly into the soil by using

special machine
Eg: planting of paddy

2) Hydroponics

The roots of the plants are immersed in a solution

Which contain all the macronutrients & micronutrients
 3) Aeroponics
definition

The plants are suspended in a special chamber

with the roots exposed to the air

Nutrient solutions are sprayed on to the roots of the

plants at suitable intervals.
Eg: lettuce

4) Breeding of plants
definition

Different plant varieties with certain beneficial

characteristics are selectively bred from both parent plants.
 Example for breeding of plants

Dura sp. X Pisifera sp.

Tenera sp.

5) Animal Breeding
definition
Involved the cross breeding of two
different breeds of animal
Friesien cow x Sahiwal bull

Examples:
hybrid cattle Mafriwal is bred
in farms for its milk Mafriwal
 6) Tissue culture

An entire plant can be regenerated from the cells or tissue of a parent plant
and sterile in culture medium or culture solution.
Eg: papayas, pineapples, starfruits

7) Genetic engineering

It involves the transfer of beneficial genes from one organism to

another organism.

This technique enables the characteristics of an organism to be altered

by changing the genetic composition of the organism.

Genes from plants inserted DNA of animal cell and vise versa.
The genetically modified organism (GMO) is called transgenic organism.
 8) Soil management
definition

Addition of organic or inorganic fertilizers returns the nutrients to the soil.

9) Crop rotation

Different plant are cultivated in succession on the same plot

of land over a period of time

10) Biological control

The control of pests by biological means and achieved by introducing

a natural enemy of the pest such as a predator or a parasite.
Examples: snakes and owls are control the rat population in oil palm plantation
 6.15
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
IN FOOD PROCESSING
PAGE 143
Food processing :
To make it more attractive.
To make it more palatable.
To last longer.
To kill microorganisms that can cause food
poisoning.
 Food Technology Used in
Food Processing
Methods Description Example
Pasteurisation - Heating at 63C for 30 -Milk
minutes or heating at -Juice
72C for 15 seconds -Yoghurt
followed by rapid cooling
below -10C
Dehydration - Drying uses heat. -Raisins.
(Drying) - Sun drying. -Peas.
-Mushroom.
-Salted fish.
Freezing - Store at -18C or -Meat
below. -Fish
-Juices
Cooking - Heating with high -Meat
temperature can kill -Poultry
microorganisms.
Cooling/ - Store at 0C 10C. -Fish
refrigeration -Meat
-Eggs
-Milk
-Fruits/vegetables
Fermentation - Fermented by adding -Pulut rice
yeast. -Tapioca

Canning - Sealed in airtight and -Fruits

heated -Fish
-Meat
-Poultry
Pickling - Treating food with salt -Chilies
or sugar cause the -Fruits
microorganisms to lose
water through osmosis.
CHAPTER 7 :

RESPIRATION

PAGE 150
 Understanding the respiratory process
in energy production

Transmission Muscle contraction Active transport

of of
nerve impulses biochemical
substances
Energy Requirement

Formation of Cell division

Synthesis of
new protoplasm
proteins
for growth
The main substrate required in
cellular respiration for producing
energy is
 A
A
N
E
A
R
TYPES OF E
O
INTERNAL R
B RESPIRATION
O
I
B
C
I
RESPIRATION C
RESPIRATION
 CELL RESPIRATION
( Internal Respiration )

The biochemical process

in which energy is made
available to all living cell
 ENERGY PRODUCTION
IN AEROBIC RESPIRATION
FOOD
OXIDATION O2
-CARBOHYDRATES OF
GLUCOSE
MOLECULES

Releases
Energy, Water, CO2
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Requires oxygen gas
In the cells, glucose molecules are oxidised
by oxygen.
Chemical equation?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2898
kJ
Large amount of energy is produced (38 ATP)
Waste products are water and carbon dioxide
 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Does not requires oxygen gas
In the cells, glucose molecules are oxidised
without oxygen.
Less amount of energy is produced (2 ATP)
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

2 LOCATIONS

IN HUMAN IN
MUSCLES YEAST
 Anaerobic respiration
in human muscle
During vigorous activities, the blood cannot
supply enough oxygen to all tissues.
The muscles are in state of oxygen deficiency
(oxygen debt)
The muscles get an extra energy from
anaerobic respiration.
continue
Chemical equation?

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + 150 kJ (2 ATP)

Waste products?
continue
Much of the energy is still trapped in lactic
acid molecules.
The high level of lactic acid may cause
muscular cramps and fatigue.
Fast and deep breathing can oxidised the
lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.
Oxidation of lactic acid occurs in the liver.
 In yeast
Chemical equation?

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 210 kJ

This process is called Fermentation.

Catalysed by the enzyme Zymase

Waste products are ethanol and carbon
dioxide.
 Comparison between Aerobic and
Anaerobic respiration in Human
Aerobic Differences Anaerobic
Yes Oxygen need No

High Amount of energy Less

Glucose and Substrate Glucose

oxygen
Carbon Product lactic acid
dioxide and
water
7.3 UNDERSTANDING THE
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
ACROSS THE
RESPIRATORY
SURFACES AND
TRANSPORT OF GASES
IN HUMANS.
 The human breathing mechanism

Rib cage air moves out

air moves in
moves
upwards as Rib cage
the external lungs moves
intercostal downwards
muscles as the
contract ribs external
diaphragms intercostal
muscles
relax
diaphragm diaphragm
contracts, moves relaxes and
down and flattens curves upwards
 THE PROCESS OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE
ACROSS THE SURFACE OF THE ALVEOLUS
AND THE BLOOD CELLS

Diffusion of a gas depends on

differences in partial pressure between
the two regions.

The greater the gradient of concentration

across the respiratory surface, the
greater the rate of diffusion
 The partial pressure of oxygen in the air
of the alveoli is higher compared to the
partial pressure of oxygen in the blood
capillaries.

Therefore, oxygen diffuses across the

surface of the alveolus and blood
capillaries into the blood.
 The partial pressure of the carbon
dioxide is lower in the alveoli compared
to that of the blood capillaries.

Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood

capillaries into the alveoli and is expelled
through the nose or mouth into the
atmosphere.
Gaseous exchange across the surface of the alveolus
and blood capillaries in the lungs

Blood entering the

Blood leaving the blood capillary has
blood capillary has inhaled air exhaled air
higher partial
a higher partial presure of carbon
pressure of oxygen alveolus dioxide and a
and a lower partial lower partial
pressure of carbon pressure of oxygen
dioxide
Carbon dioxide
diffuses out of
High partial
blood plasma
pressure of oxygen,
low partial pressure capillary wall
of carbon dioxide.
blood capillary
deoxygenated
Oxygen
red blood cell
diffuses into
red blood cells
 TRANSPORTATION OF OXYGEN

O2 IN THE ALVEOLI

BLOOD
LUNGS

HAEMOGLOBIN + OXYGEN OXYHAEMOGLOBIN

BODY CELLS

BODY CELLS
- FOR CELLULAR RESPIRATION
TRANSPORTATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

Occurs in 3 ways

7 % OF CO2 DISSOLVED IN 23%

THE BLOOD PLASMA CARBON DIOXIDE + HAEMOGLOBIN
CARBAMINOHAEMOGLOBIN

70%

CO2 + H20 H 2CO3 H+ + HCO-3

GASEOUS EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE BLOOD
AND BODY CELL
GASEOUS PARTIAL PRESSURE EFFECTS

ALVEOLAR BLOOD
AIR CAPILARY OF
LUNG

O2 The O2 in
alveolus diffuses
into the blood
capillary

CO2 CO2 in the blood

capillary diffuses
into the alveolus
 The exchange of respiratory
gases between the blood and
body cells

Page 162
 In the capillaries, the partial pressure of
oxygen in the blood is higher than the
partial pressure of oxygen in the cells.

Oxyhaemoglobin breaks down and release

oxygen to be used for cellular respiration.

Cellular respiration depletes the oxygen

content in the cells.
 Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide
(partial pressure of carbon dioxide is higher in
the cells than the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in the capillaries)

Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells into the

tissue capillaries before being transported
back to the lungs
The regulatory mechanism of
oxygen and carbon dioxide
contents in the body
Page 164
 The content of carbon dioxide in the
body higher than normal value

Carbon dioxide reacts with water to

form carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen carbonate

ion and hydrogen ion
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

decreased the blood pH

Stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptor in the aorta Stimulate the central chemoreceptor in brain
and carotid bodies

Regulate respiratory control centre in Medulla

oblongata.

Stimulate increased breathing (rate of respiration)

Act to eliminate the extra carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide content back to than Blood pH back to normal

normal
 The regulatory mechanism of
oxygen and carbon dioxide contents in the body

How the body react to maintain

oxygen and carbon dioxide at normal value
 Cellular Respiration

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + ATP

 The content of carbon dioxide in the
body higher than normal value

Carbon dioxide reacts with water to

form carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen carbonate

ion and hydrogen ion
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

decreased the blood pH

Stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors in the Stimulate the central chemoreceptors in brain.
aorta and carotid bodies

Regulate respiratory control centre in Medulla

oblongata.

Stimulate increased breathing (rate of respiration)

Act to eliminate the extra carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide content back to than Blood pH back to normal

normal .
 The content of oxygen in the body is
lower than normal value

Stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors in the

aorta and carotid bodies

Regulate respiratory control centre in Medulla Regulate cardiovascular control centre in Medulla
oblongata. oblongata.

Stimulate increased breathing (rate of respiration) Stimulate increased the rate of heart beat

Increased oxygen and carbon dioxide

transportation

Act to eliminate the extra Act to supply more oxygen to

carbon dioxide to alveoli the tissues faster
faster

Carbon dioxide content back to normal Oxygen content back to normal

.
 The content of carbon dioxide in the The content of oxygen in the body is
body is higher than normal value lower than normal value

Carbon dioxide react with

water to form carbonic acid Stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors in the
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 aorta and carotid bodies

Carbonic acid disassociates into ion Regulate cardiovascular control

hydrogen carbonate and ion hydrogen Centre in Medulla oblongata.
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

Stimulate increase in the rate of heart beat

decreased the blood pH

Stimulate the central chemoreceptors Increased oxygen and carbon dioxide

in brain transportation

Regulate respiratory control centre in

Medulla oblongata.
Act to supply more oxygen
Stimulate increase in breathing (rate of respiration) to the tissues faster

Act to eliminate extra carbon dioxide to the alveoli faster Oxygen content back to normal

Blood pH back to normal The carbon dioxide back

to normal .
 Emergency conditions such as
fear. fight, excited

Stimulate adrenal glands to

secrets the adrenaline hormone
into the bloodstream.

Increase the rate Increase glucose in Increase the rate of

of heat beat blood respiration

Increase production of
energy (ATP)

To prepare the body to react

during in emergencies
Carotid body

Aorta body

Aorta

Heart
Which parts of the brain control the rate of respiration ?

Medulla oblongata
7.6 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

PAGE 166
 Lenticels are raised pores found on the stems and
roots. The cells around the lenticels are arranged loosely
to allow the diffusion of gases into and out of the plant
tissues
Stomata connect the air spaces inside a leaf with the
atmosphere. The air spaces in the leaves are connected
to those of the stems and roots.
Oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses quickly into the
air spaces and then into the mesophyll cells.
During aerobic respiration, oxygen concentration in the
cells is lower than concentration of oxygen in the air
spaces
The differences in concentration gradient allows oxygen
into diffuse continuously from the air spaces into the
atmosphere.
 Energy requirement in plants
During cellular respiration plant cells take in
oxygen and produce carbon dioxide.
Plants cannot photosynthesis in darkness,
respiration still occurs because plants need
energy continuously to sustain their living
processes.
The energy requirement for living processes in
plants is much lower than animals because plants
do not move.
 The intake of oxygen by plants
for respiration

Do you know that plants also undergo

respiration process?
Most plants take in oxygen through leaves,
stems and roots.
Gaseous exchange between plant cells
and the environment occurs by diffusion,
mainly through stomata and lenticels.
Continue
Each stomata consists of a pore
surrounded by two guard cells.
The guards cells contain the chloroplast in
which photosynthesis takes places.
The stomata of most plants open when
there is light and they close in the dark.

(Figure: refer text book 167)

 Aerobic and anaerobic respiration in plants
Aerobic respiration
usually carried out by plants in the present of
oxygen

Anaerobic respiration
during flooding,
the initial stages of germination
when the embryo is completely enclosed within
an airtight seed coat
Respiration and photosynthesis

Dependent on each other.

The compensation point is at which the
rate of carbon dioxide production during
respiration is equal to that of carbon
dioxide consumption during
photosynthesis at certain light intensity.
(Figure 7.17:refer text book pg.168)
 As light intensity increase, the rate of
photosynthesis becomes faster than the
rate of respiration
So the plant need for a higher carbon
dioxide meanwhile the plant release
excess oxygen into atmosphere
 For growth, reproduction and seed
production to be possible in plants, the
rate of photosynthesis must exceed the
rate of respiration
This enables the rate of sugar production
to exceed the rate of sugar consumption
So the excess sugar can be used for
growth and other vital living processes in
plants
RESPIRATION
THE CONCEPT MAP OF
RESPIRATION
Digestion of carbo. LIVING PROCESS

Obtain Process of photo.

from Is
RESPIRATORY
Glucose MECHANISM

Mainly
RESPIRATION
RESPIRATORY
Substrate STRUCTURE
Need Need
Energy /
ATP
Produce CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
BREATHING

Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic Respiration

Cause For

Oxygen
Oxygen
Lack of Need of

Intense activities
(Human muscle) Man Animals Plants
- flooding paddy
- yeast
 RESPIRATORY
STRUCTURE

- Moist
Each of the org. Consist of - One cell thick
has - Premeable
- Large surface area
Various Respiratory
adaptation surface Characteristics

The higher For

Total Gesseous Need Difference in

surface Increase the exchanage partial pressure
effiency of
Carbonic
acid
Blood Respiratory
In the form of gasseous
Carbamino from
haemoglobin In
Tissues Is CO2
Hydrogen body Such as
Carbonate ions to Transport
In the form of In
Oxyhaemoglobin Blood Is O2
 Fear Relaxing

Difference
rate of respiration
RESPIRATORY Situation
MECHANISM

Consist of
Vigorous
Inhale exercise
Exhale

caused
Has Has

Changes in O2 &CO2 contents

Difference of composition
of air and heat content
stimulate
Investigated by
using
Regulatory mechanism Rate of
in respiration heartbeat
Scientific
method
 CHAPTER 8
DYNAMIC (BALANCE)
ECOSYSTEM

PAGE 173
 An environment

Biotic components Abiotic components

(living organisms) (non-living components)

pH
Topography
Light Microclimate
intensity

Temperature Humidity
Biotic components

Tertiary
consumers
Secondary
consumers

Primary consumers

Producers
 Producers
Green plants
Use light energy to synthesis organic
substances ( food )
 Primary consumers

Herbivores
Obtain their energy by consuming producers
 Secondary consumers

Carnivores
Obtain their energy by eating primary
consumers.
 Tertiary consumers

Carnivores
Obtain their energy by eating secondary
consumers.
 Decomposers
Microorganisms that break down
waste product and dead bodies.
Examples : bacteria and fungi
 Food chain, food web and
trophic levels

Food chains shows a sequence of

organisms through which energy is
transferred.
Examples :
Grass grasshoppers frogs snake

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Producers
consumers consumers consumers
 Food web the series of interrelated food chain which
provides a more accurate picture of the feeding
relationship in an ecosystem.
Energy loss

Energy loss
snake
frog
Energy loss
Energy loss
bird
Energy loss

grasshopper
caterpillars
plant

The source of energy is sunlight. Plant convert solar energy into

chemical energy. During photosynthesis energy flows through a
food web, however some is loss as heat during it transferred to the
next trophic level in a food web.
Food Web
 The interaction between biotic
components in relation to feeding

INTERACTION

saprophytism Prey - predator

symbiosis

commensalism parasitsm

mutualism
 Commensalism

the commensal benefits

the host neither derives any
benefit nor is harmed.
Epiphytes
Example :
Epiphytes such as pigeon
orchids grow on trees.
Epizoit such as remora fish and
shark. Epizoit
 Mutualism

Relationship between two species of

organisms in which both benefit.
Example:
Lichen (alga produces food for itself and also
for fungus. The fungus supplies carbon
dioxide and nitrogenous product for the alga to
produce its food)
 Parasitism

Relationship between two organisms in

which one organism (the parasite) benefits
and the other (the host) is harmed.
Example:
Ectoparasites (ticks and fleas)
Endoparasites (tapeworms)
 Prey-predator

Relationship where organisms

which is smaller called the prey,
is hunted and eaten by the
stronger animal (the predator).
Example:
A deer eaten by a lion.
 Saprophytism
The type of interaction in which living
organisms obtain food from dead and
decaying matter.
Example:
Saprophytic bacteria and fungi. (Mucor
sp.)
 The interaction between biotic
components in relation to competition

Competition is an interaction between

organisms livings together in a habitat
and competing for the same resources
that are in limited supply.
 Competition

Intraspecific Interspecific

-competition between -competition between

individuals of the same individuals of different
species. species.
 Intraspecific competition

Example:

-Two paramecium populations

(Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium
aurelia) were place in separate cultures.

- Result : Both survived

 Interspecific competition

Example:
-Two paramecium populations (Paramecium
caudatum and Paramecium aurelia) were
place in the same culture.
-Result : Paramecium caudatum eventually
died out.
CHAPTER 8:
 AN ECOSYSTEM :

Is a community of organisms which interact with

their non-living environment and function as a unit.
It is a dynamic system where the biotic
components are well balanced with one another and
with the biotic components.
Ecosystems vary in size.
 A HABITAT:
Is a natural environment where organisms
live.
Provides an organisms with the basic resources
of life such as food
- shelter
:
- living space
- nesting sites
- mates
Example: The natural habitat of a mudskipper
is the mud in mangrove swamps.
 A SPECIES :
Is a group of organisms that look alike
and have similar characteristics, share the
same roles in an ecosystem and are
capable of interbreeding to produce
fertilize offspring.
 A POPULATION :
Is a group of organisms of the same
species living in the
same time .
Example: A population of elephants living in
the jungle.
 A COMMUNITY:
Several populations of different
species living in the same habitat in an
ecosystem.
The members of the community are
interdependent and interact with one
another in order to survive.
A change in any of the populations
will affect the distribution of other
populations.
 A NICHE :
The niche of a population includes
- the range of temperatures at which it
lives.
-the type of food it eats
-and the space it occupies
Two species cannot share the same ecological
niche.
Individuals of the same species may have
different niches.
Animals that undergo metamorphosis in their life
cycle occupy different niches.
Example: A tadpole lives entirely in water and
uses different resources while an adult
frog lives mainly on the land.
An organisms
A Population
A Community
An Ecosystem
 THE PIONEER SPECIES (The first colonisers)
The adaptive characteristic:
- they have special adaptations that enable to survive on dry
and nutrient-poor soil.
- they have dense root systems to bind the sand particles and
hold water and humus.
- they have a short life cycle.
When the pioneer species die, they add the humus content of
the soil.

Hence, the pioneer species modify the environment, eventually

creating conditions which are less favourable to themselves.

They establish conditions that are more conducive to other

species which are called successor species.
The process of colonisation and succession
in a pond
Pioneer species (submerged plants and algae)
 SUCCESSION:
The process which pioneer changes its environment so that it is
replaced by another community.
Succession is a very slow and continuous process which occurs
in stages.
Ecological succession leads to a relatively stable community
which is in equilibrium with its environment. This is called a
climax community (The tropical rainforest)
A climax community is a stable community that undergoes little
or no change in its species composition.
 THE SUCCESSOR SPECIES:

The adaptive characteristics:

-these plants grow bigger than the pioneer species, thus
reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches them and
gradually replacing them.
-most of these plants have small wind-dispersable seeds
which are able to spread and grow rapidly.

The changes in habitat that caused by successor:

-they change the structure and quality of the soil, making it
more conducive for larger plants to grow.
-these plants then become the new dominant species.
The first Successor species (floating plants)
The second Successor species (grasses)
The third Successor species ( herbaceous plants)
Climax community (forest)
-The species that inhabit seaward zone include Avicennia sp. and
Sonneratia sp. (The pioneer species)

-The middle zone is inhabited by Rhizophora sp.

-The inland zone is less frequently covered by sea water. This is

where Bruguiera sp. grows.

AS RhiB
Mangrove swamps
 THE COLONISATION & SUSSESSION
OF MANGROVE SWAMPS:

1. Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp

Adaptation:
-have long underground cable roots that support them in
the soft and muddy soil.
-protect them from strong coastal winds.
-produce vertical breathing roots called Pneumatophores
(REFER your text book PAGE 184)
2. Rhizophora sp.

Adaptation:
-have prop roots that not only anchor the plants to the mud
but also for aeration. (text book page 184)
-the leaves have thick cuticles that help them reduce
transpiration.
-the root cells have a higher osmotic pressure than the
surrounding salt water. Thus, the cell sap of the roots does not
lose water by osmosis.
-instead, salt water that enter the root cells is excreted through
hydathodes.
-the seeds are able to germinate while still being attached to the
parent tree. This phenomenon is called vivipary.
Vivipary
increases the
chances of
survival of the
seedlings.
3. Rhizophora sp.

-Rhizophora sp. replaces the pioneer species.

-The arching roots of Rhizophora sp. trap slit and mud, creating
firmer soil structure over time.
-The ground become higher and the soil becomes drier.
-The condition now becomes more suitable for other species of
mangroves such as Bruguiera sp. which replaces Rhizophora sp.
4. Bruguiera sp
-The buttress roots of Bruguiera sp. form loops which protrude
from the soil to trap more silt and mud.
-This modifies the soil structure gradually.
-Over time, terrestrial plants such as Nypa fruticants and
Pandanus sp. begin to replace Bruguiera sp.
-The transition from a mangrove swamp to a terrestrial forest and
eventually to a tropical rainforest which is a climax community
takes a long time.
 Sampling technique to study the
population size of organism
1. Quadrat sampling technique used in
estimating the size of plants population and
immobile animals.

2. The capture, mark, release and recapture

technique used to estimate the population of
mobile animals such as small mammals,
butterflies and bird.
 Quadrat
1 metre

1 metre
 From the quadrat
We can find:
A) Frequency : the number of times particular species is found.
= no of quadrat containing the species
X 100%
number of quadrat

B) Density : the number of individuals of a species per unit area

= total number of individuals of a species in all quadrat
number of quadrats x quadrat area

C) % coverage : an indication of how much area of the quadrat is

occupied by a species.
= aerial coverage of all quadrats (m2)
X 100 %
number of quadrats x quadrats area
Quadrat 1

1 metre
1 metre
Quadrat 2
 Number of quadrats containing the species
Frequency = Number of quadrats
X 100 %

2
F= X 100%
2

= 100 %
Density = total number of individuals of a species in all quadrat
number of quadrats x quadrat area

16 + 9
Density =
2 x 1 m2

= 25 / 2 m2

= 12. 5 plant over meter squared

 Exercise
Quadrat Number of plant
Plant P Plant Q
1 5 6
2 2 0
3 8 8
4 3 3
5 2 0
6 4 5
 Please Find
Frequency and Density for:
Plant P
Plant Q
Capture, mark, release and recapture technique

location Second capture Estimated

Total number of population
Total Total
rats in the first a x b
number number of
capture (a) c
of rats marked
(b) rats
(c)

A 120 80 20 480
B 200 150 50 600
C 500 250 100 1250
 Exercise
In the effort to estimate the population of rats
in a paddy field, a farmer set up some traps
and managed to capture 22 rats. The farmer
tagged the rats by putting a small metal ring
on the rats feet and then released them.

After 2 days, the farmer set up the trap again

and this time he managed to trap 20 rats.
Among the trapped rats, 16 of them were
found without the ring. What is the estimated
population of the rats in the paddy field?
8.4 The Concept of
Biodiversity
 Classification of organisms
Taxonomy is a branch of Biology concerned
with identifying, describing and naming
organisms.
It is a systematic method of classifying plants
and animals based on the similarities in their
characteristics.
FIVE MAJOR KINGDOMS
Monera - Protista
Fungi - Plantae
Animalia
 MONERA
Unicellular organisms, have cell walls but lack of both
membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
Example : Bacteria dan cynobakteria.

PROTISTA
Unicellular and multicellular organisms
Their cell have nucleus and organelles and
surrounded by membrane
Example : Paramecium & Euglena
 Monera: Protista
 FUNGI
Multicellular organisms but some fungi are unicellular.
The cell walls of fungi contain a material call chitin.
Saprotrophically
Example: Mushroom , Mucor sp. and yeast

PLANTAE
All land plants.
Can produce their own food by photosynthesis.
Their cell have a nucleus, cell wall, plasma
membrane, mitochondria, vacuols and other
organelles
Example : Palm , Flowering plants, Mosses & Ferns
 ?? ??
 ANIMALIA
All multicellular animals
Their cell do not have cell walls
Animals can move from place to place
Example: Sponges, Barnacles Invetebrates, Fish,
Reptiles and Mammals
THE HIERARCHY IN THE CLASSIFICATION OF
ORGANISMS

Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species
 Scientific Name
Each organisms is given a scientific name according
to based on the Linnaeus Binomial System

Each organisms has two names in Latin.

The first name begins with a capital letter refers to the

genus. The second name begins with small letter
refers to the species.

Example :
Humans are named Homo sapiens
Homo refers to the genus and sapiens refers to the
species. The word written in italic or can be underlined
Example : Homo sapiens
 Kingdom - Animala or Metazoa - Can
move around, specalized sense organs
Phylum - Chordata - Hollow nerve cord
Class - Mammalia - Hair, Mammary
glands for nursing young
Order - Primate - (Monkeys) - Binocular
vision (forward eyes)
 Family - Hominidae - (Great apes) - Complex
social behaviors, larger body, Skeletal
modifications for semi-upright posture, 32 teeth
(SubFamily) - Homininae (hominines) - Gorilla,
Chimp, Human (Tribe) - Hominini or hominins -
canine tooth, which looks more like an incisor.
Toe bone improved for moving bipedally.
Genus - Homo "man" - Larger brain
Species - Sapien "wise" - Language, more
sophisticated tools.
 CHAPTER 9
ENDANGERED ECOSYSTEM
PAGE 204
 9.1
Human activities that
endanger an ecosystem
1. Deforestation
Meaning
Causes
Effects
How to overcome
 Meaning
The permanent removal of trees from the
forests.
 Caused by
Uncontrolled development of:
House and resident area
Industrial area
School
Agriculture area
 Effects
Loss of water catchments area
Soil erosion
Landslides
Flash flood
Loss of biodiversity (fauna and flora)
Climatic changes
Increase of carbon dioxide gas
Greenhouse effect
Global warming
 How to overcome
limit deforestation
replanting after deforestation
promotes green world.
 POLLUTION
Air
Water
Thermal
Noise
 Air pollution
Acid rain
Causes
Effects
How to overcome
 Caused by
Open burning
Soot (tiny carbon particles)
Lead (from cars and vehicles)
Smog and haze
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxides
Oxides of nitrogen
Sulphur dioxide
 Effects
Corrode buildings
Water pH becomes low
Aquatic lives may die (acidic water)
Minerals in soil dissolved
Soil becomes infertile
Ecological balance disrupted
 How to overcome
Stop the open burning
Use unleaded petrol
Use smog filter at chimney
Use renewable energy
 The formation of acid rain

Oxides of nitrogen Sulphur oxides

Dissolved in rain water

Nitric acid Sulphuric acid

Acid rain
 Water pollution
Mainly caused by EUTROPHICATION
Increasing of organic contents in a river or
pond.
Resulting in rapidly grow of algae.
Photosynthesis rate of submerged plants
decreased.
The death of plants and algae lead to a
severe depletion of oxygen.
The rapid growth of microorganisms in water
lead to the increase in BOD.
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Refers to the amount of dissolved oxygen
taken up by microorganisms.
High BOD value means the presence of
large number of microorganisms.
High BOD value means a high level of
pollution.
 Experiment:
Use methylene blue solution and polluted
water sample.
Concept:
The less time taken for methylene blue to turn
colourless, the water is more polluted.
 CHAPTER 9
[ENDANGERED ECOSYSTEM]
GREENHOUSE EFFECT &
THE THINNING OF THE OZONE
LAYER
 HEAT TRAPPED
IN ATMOSPHERE

CARBON DIOXIDE LAYER

EARTH
 Green house effect
The main greenhouse gas is carbon
dioxide (from coal burning, vehicle exhaust
and open burning)
Occurs when heat (infra red radiation)
from sunlight is trapped by carbon dioxide
layer in atmosphere.
This can lead global warming.
 Effects
Increasing global temperature.
Ice melting at north and south poles.
Sea level increases.
Flash flood.
Loss of flora and fauna.
Imbalance ecosystem.
 OZONE LAYER
Location : Stratosphere layer.

Ozone layer is a protective shield that can

absorb ultraviolet radiation from Sun.

Overexposure to UV radiations increase

the risk of skin cancer and eye disease
(CATARACT)
 Thinning of ozone layer
Caused by CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)

Contains of chlorine, fluorine and carbons.

Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) from refrigerators,

air conditioner and aerosol can destroy
ozone layer in the atmosphere.

Nowadays, CFCs is replaced by H CFCs

that more stable environmental friendly.
 U.V. RAYS

OZONE LAYER

U.V. RAYS

OZONE HOLE

EARTH