COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Communication satellites bring the world
to you anywhere and any time..
What exactly is a satellite?
The word satellite originated from the Latin word Satellit- meaning
an attendant, one who is constantly hovering around & attending to a
master or big man.
For our own purposes however a satellite is simply any body that
moves around another (usually much larger) one in a mathematically
predictable path called an orbit.
The first man made satellite with radio transmitter was in 1957.
. There are about 750 satellite in the space, most of them are used for
communication.
How do satellite work?
How do Satellites Work?
Disadvantages of satellites:
If an object is fired
fast enough it should
escape the earths pull.
Positioning in orbit
Stability
Power
Communications
Harsh environment
Positioning
This can be achieved by several methods
One method is to use small rocket motors
These use fuel - over half of the weight of
most satellites is made up of fuel
Often it is the fuel availability which
determines the lifetime of a satellite
Commercial life of a satellite typically 10-
15 years
Stability
It is vital that satellites are stabilised
- to ensure that solar panels are aligned properly,
communication antennae are aligned properly
Early satellites used spin stabilisation
- either this requires an inefficient omni-directional
aerial Or antennae were precisely counter-rotated in
order to provide stable communications.
* Modern satellites use reaction wheel
stabilisation - a form of gyroscopic stabilisation.
Power
2. 2.
2.
1. 1. 1.
TELSTAR SYNCOM 2
Satellite orbits
Classification of orbits:
* Circular orbits are simplest
* Inclined orbits are useful for coverage of
equatorial regions
* Elliptical orbits can be used to give quasi
stationary behavior viewed from earth using 3 or
4 satellites
* Orbit changes can be used to extend the life of
satellites
Classification of orbits:
GEO
LEO
MEO
Molniya Orbit
HAPs
Satellite orbit altitudes
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
These satellites are in orbit 35,786 km above the earths
surface along the equator.
Objects in Geostationary orbit revolve around the earth
at the same speed as the earth rotates. This means GEO
satellites remain in the same position relative to the
surface of earth.
GEO contd.
Advantages
A GEO satellites distance from earth gives it a large coverage
area, almost a fourth of the earths surface.
GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular area.
These factors make it ideal for satellite broadcast and other
multipoint applications
Minimal doppler shift
Disadvantages
A GEO satellites distance also cause it to have both a
comparatively weak signal and a time delay in the signal,
which is bad for point to point communication.
GEO satellites, centered above the equator, have difficulty for
broadcasting signals to near polar regions
Launching of satellites to orbit are complex and expensive.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
LEO satellites are much closer to the earth than GEO satellites,
ranging from 500 to 1,500 km above the surface.
LEO satellites dont stay in fixed position relative to the surface,
and are only visible for 15 to 20 minutes each pass.
A network of LEO satellites is necessary for LEO satellites to be
useful
The Iridium system has 66 satellites in six LEO orbits,
each at an altitude of 750 km.
Advantage
A MEO satellites longer duration of visibility and
wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a
MEO network than a LEO network.
Disadvantage
A MEO satellites distance gives it a longer time
delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, though
not as bad as a GEO satellite.
MEO satellites
Downlink, Bandwidth,
Band Uplink, GHz
GHz MHz
L 1.5 1.6 15
S 1.9 2.2 70
C 4 6 500
Ku 11 14 500
Ka 20 30 3500
Solar day and Sidereal day
T6 A6
Keplers 3rd Law: Law of Harmonics
In English:
Orbits with the same semi-
major axis will have the
same period
Newtons Laws
Keplers laws only describe the planetary motion
without attempting to suggest any explanation as
to why the motion takes place in that manner.
F
Newtons 3rd Law: Action - Reaction
M1m2
Fg = G r2 ( )
Classical orbital elements
Apogee and Perigee
In astronomy, an apsis is the point of greatest or least distance
of the elliptical orbit of an astronomical object from its center of
attraction, which is generally the center of mass of the system.
A straight line drawn through the perigee and apogee is the line
of apsides. This is the major axis of the ellipse.
Satellite trajectory
Satellite period
Satellite velocity
Satellite position
Satellite Trajectory
The path of a satellite in space may be obtained
under the following assumptions:
1.The satellite and earth are symmetric spherically
and may be treated as point masses.
2.There are no other forces acting on the system
besides the gravitational forces.
3.The mass of the earth is much greater than
satellite.
These assumptions lead to the two body problem.
Applying Newton's laws to such systems,
..
F = m r (second law) (1)
F = -GMm. r (third law) ..(2)
r2 r
Substituting (1) in (2) we get,
.. ..
r + GM .r = 0 (or) r + .r = 0
r3 r3
..
Where r = vector acceleration in the given coordinate system
r = vector from M (mass of earth) to m (mass of satellite)
r = distance between M and m , = GM (gravitational parameter)
A partial system is easy to obtain and is adequate for illustrating the size and shape of
an orbit.
The resulting trajectory equation has a general form of conic section:
r= P ; p = a geometric constant called parameter of conic
1+e cos = (r v cos )2 /
e = the eccentricity which determines type of conic section
=(1-P/a)
= angle between r and the point on the conic nearest the focus
= flight elevation angle , v = satellite velocity
a = semi-major axis = (ra+rb)/2
Satellite period
The period T of a satellite is given as:
T2= 4 2 .(R+h)3
Where , R= radius of earth,
h= satellite altitude
Satellite velocity
Total specific mechanical energy of a satellite is the sum of
kinetic energy/unit mass and potential energy/unit mass,
but there is an interchange between these energies.
Thus a satellite slows down when it moves up and gains
speed as it loses height.
The velocity of a satellite in an elliptic orbit is :
V2= (2/r -1/a)
also = V2/2 - /r and = /2a
http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/satmet/modules/sat_basics/images/orbits.jpg
Geostationary Satellites
http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/mcidas
Geostationary Satellite Coverage
http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/mcidas
Geostationary Satellite Coverage
http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/mcidas
Geo-stationary satellites
Applications:
Telecommunication systems
Radio
Data Transmission systems
The angle , is the angle between the solar vector and the orbit
plane. If the solar vector is in the orbit plane, = 0. Beta can go
to 90. The general convention is that is positive when the sun
is on the same side of the orbit plane as the positive orbit normal
(right hand rule).
Launching of geostationary satellite:
Initially place spacecraft with the final rocket
stage into LEO.
After a couple of orbits, during which the orbital
parameters are measured, the final stage is
reignited and the spacecraft is launched into a
geostationary transfer orbit(GTO).
Perigee of GTO is that of LEO altitude and
apogee that of GEO altitude.
After a few orbits in GTO, while the orbital
parameters are measured, a rocket motor (AKM)
is ignited at apogee and GTO is raised until it is
circular geostationary orbit.
AKM (Apogee Kick Motor) is used to circularize
the orbit at GEO and to remove any inclination
error so that the final orbit is very close to
geostationary.
Launching of geostationary satellite
Geostationary Transfer
Orbit
If we speed the satellite
up while it's in low
circular earth orbit it will
go into elliptical orbit,
heading up to apogee.
If we do nothing else, it
will stay in this elliptical
orbit, going from apogee
to perigee and back again.
Phase II
Phase I
ORBITAL MANEUVERS
Hohmann Transfer
Can be used to raise or lower
altitude
Most efficient method
At minimum, requires
completion of half revolution
of transfer orbit
Hohmann transfer
Most satellites launched today are initially placed into an
low earth orbit.
In the next phase the satellite is injected into an elliptical
transfer orbit which has an apogee at the height of GEO and
its apsides (line joining perigee-apogee) in the equatorial
plane.
Finally satellite is injected into GEO by imparting a
velocity increment at the apogee equal to the difference
between satellite velocity at GTO and velocity in GEO.
A transfer between two coplanar circular orbits via
elliptical transfer orbit requires the least velocity increment
(and hence fuel). This principle was recognized by Hohmann
in 1925 and is referred as Hohmann transfer.
A Hohmann transfer is a fuel efficient way to transfer
from one circular orbit to another circular orbit that is in
the same plane (same inclination), but a different altitude.
To change from a lower orbit (A) to a higher orbit (C),
an engine is first fired in the opposite direction from the
direction the vehicle is traveling.
This will add velocity to the vehicle causing its trajectory
to become an elliptic orbit (B). This elliptic orbit is
carefully designed to reach the desired final altitude of
the higher orbit (C).
In this way the elliptic orbit or transfer orbit is tangent to
both the original orbit (A) and the final orbit (C). This is
why a Hohmann transfer is fuel efficient.
When the target altitude is reached the engine is fired in
the same manner as before but this time the added
velocity is planned such that the elliptic transfer orbit is
circularized at the new altitude of orbit (C).
Hohmann Transfer
Target Orbit
Initial
Orbit
Transfer Orbit
The orbital inclination is given by,
cos i= sin1 cos 1
where i=inclination
1 =azimuth of launch
1 =latitude of launching site
PERTURBATIONS
Perturbation is a term used in astronomy to
describe alterations to an object's orbit caused by
gravitational interactions with other bodies.
Note: Among the three forces affecting the inclination (gravity pull,
sun and non spherical nature of earth) the later force has a component
in the direction opposite to the former two forces.
Sun synchronous satellites pass over any given latitude at almost the
same local time during each orbital pass
Polar constellations
Triple coverage:
The constellation geometry is similar to single coverage case, with at
least three satellites must be visible at all points.
The coverage angle is adjusted such that at least 3 satellites lie within
angle of each point of set.
The resulting relationship for providing triple coverage from pole up
to latitude is
N = 11cos /(1-cos ) ; 1.4n < mcos < 2.4n
Inclined orbit
A satellite is said to occupy an inclined orbit around the earth if
the orbit exhibits an angle other than zero degrees with the
equatorial plane
They have an inclination between 0 degrees (equatorial orbit)
and 90 degrees
This family of satellites provides unbiased worldwide coverage
by deploying satellites in circular orbits of same period and
inclination, distributed uniformly on the sphere.
The orbital altitude of these satellites is generally on the order of a
few hundred km, so the orbital period is on the order of a few
hours. These satellites are not sun-synchronous, however, so they
will view a place on Earth at varying times.
Adjacent orbital planes are separated equally around a reference
plane (equatorial).
Within each orbit ,neighboring satellites have equal angular
separation.
Inclined constellations
Submit before:18.08.2008
Problems
Q1. Find out the radius of a geostationary
satellite orbit.
Given:
T = 23Hr 56Min 4.1Sec
G = 6.672 X10-11 m3/kg/s2
M = 5974 X1024 kg
r = 6378.1414 km
take = GM
Answer:
T2 = 4 2 .(R)3
R = [TGM]2/3
-------------
2
Altitude, h = R-r
= 42164.17-6378.1414
= 35786.02 km
Q2. A satellite orbiting in equatorial plane has
a period from perigee-perigee of 12 Hrs.
Given that the eccentricity is 0.002.
Calculate semi-major axis.
Given:
G = 6.672 X10-11 m3/kg/s2
M = 5974 X1024 kg
r = 6378.1414 km
Answer:
Eccentricity is 0.002 (0<e<1), hence orbit is
elliptical.
For an elliptical orbit,
T2 = 4 2 .(a)3
12x60x60 =2 a3/6.672x10-11 x 5974x1024
a3 = 1.886x1025
a = 266183.1516 km
Q3. Calculate the apogee and perigee heights
for the given orbital parameters.
e=0.0011501 and
a= 7192.3 km
Given:
r = 6378.1414 km
Answer:
ra=a(1+e) = 7200.57 km
rp= a(1-e) = 7184.03 km
e=0: circle
rp ra
e<1: ellipse
v
e=1: parabola
r
e>1: hyperbola
2.a
a(1 e )
2
r
1 e cos v rp: Radius of periapsis rp a (1 e)
(perihelion)
a: semimajor axis
e: eccentricity ra: Radius of apoapsis ra a (1 e)
(aphelion)
v: true anomaly (0360 deg)
----Introduction to Solar System Dynamics----
GMm
3) Energy: E (Constant!)
2a
L m r u,
4) Angular
momentum: L m G M a (1 e 2 ) (Constant!)
Spin stabilization
With spin stabilization, the entire spacecraft rotates around its own
vertical axis, spinning like a top. This keeps the spacecraft's orientation
in space under control.
a c Periapsis
R
Line of Apsides Rp
Apoapsis b