Quantum Physics
Quantum Physics
Learning Outcomes:
13.Appreciate that, in a simple model of band theory, there are energy
bands in solids.
14.Understand the terms valence band, conduction and forbidden band
(band gap)
15.Use simple band theory to explain the temperature dependence of
the resistance of metals and of intrinsic semiconductors
16.Use simple band theory to explain the dependence on light intensity
of the resistance of an LDR
17.Explain the principles of the production of X-rays by electron
bombardment of a metal target.
18.Describe the main features of a modern X-ray tube, including control
of the intensity and hardness of the X-ray beam.
Quantum Physics
Learning Outcomes:
19.Show an understanding of the use of X-rays in imaging
internal body structures, including a simple analysis of
the causes of sharpness and contrast in X-ray imaging.
20.Recall and solve problems by using the equation for the
attenuation of X-rays and of ultrasound in matter.
21.Show an understanding of the purpose of computed
tomography or CT scanning.
22.Show an understanding of the principles of CT scanning.
23.Show an understanding of how the image of an 8-voxel
cube can be developed using CT scanning.
Particulate nature of electromagnetic
radiation
If a source of gamma radiation is placed near a
Geiger counter, irregular series of clicks can be
heard.
The counter is detecting gamma rays which is
a electromagnetic spectrum.
We can conclude that gamma rays behave like
particles when they interact with a Geiger
counter.
Energy of photon
Examples
1. Calculate the energy of a high-energy -
photon, frequency 1026 Hz.
2. Visible light has wavelengths in the range 400
nm (violet) to 700 nm (red). Calculate the
energy of a photon of red light and a photon of
violet light.
3. A 1.0 mW laser produces red light of
wavelength 6.48 x 10-7 m. Calculate how many
photons the laser produces per second.
Photoelectric emission of electrons
Photoelectric emission is the release of electrons from the surface
of a solid when electromagnetic radiation is incident on its surface.
The classical wave theory predicts that :
1. Electrons should be absorb energy continuously form the electromagnetic
waves. A more intense light should transfer energy into the metal faster,
and the electrons should be ejected with more kinetic energy.
2. For very weak light, a measurable time interval should pass between the
incidence of the light and the ejection of an electron. This time is required
for the electron to absorb the incident radiation before it acquires enough
energy to escape from the metal.
3. Electrons should be ejected at any frequency of the incident light, as long
as the intensity is high enough, because energy is being transferred to the
metal regardless of the frequency.
4. No relationship should exist between the frequency of the light and
electron kinetic energy. The kinetic energy should be related to the
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intensity of the light.
A clean zinc plate is placed on the cap of a gold-leaf electroscope.
The electroscope is then charged negatively, and the gold leaf deflects,
proving that the zinc plate is charged.
If visible light of any colour is shone on to the plate, the leaf does not move.
But when ultra-violet radiation is shone on the plate the leaf falls, showing
that it is losing negative charge.
This means that electrons are being emitted from the zinc plate.
These are called photoelectrons.
If the intensity of uv radiation is increased, the leaf falls more quickly,
showing that the rate if emission of electrons has increased.
Conclusions
1. If photoemission takes place, it does so instantaneously.
There is no delay between illumination and emission.
2. Photoemission takes place only if the frequency of the
incident radiation is above a certain minimum value
called the threshold frequency f0 (Minimum frequency
required to release electrons from the surface of a
metal).
3. Different metals have different threshold frequencies.
4. Whether or not emission takes place depends only on
whether the frequency of radiation used is above the
threshold for that surface. It does not depend on the
intensity of the radiation.
5. For a given frequency , the rate of emission of
photoelectrons is proportional to the intensity of the
radiation.
If the voltage between A and B is gradually increased, the current registered on
the micrometer decreases and falls to zero.
The minimum value of the potential difference necessary to stop the electron
flow is known as the stopping potential.
It measures the maximum kinetic energy with which the photoelectrons are
emitted.
There is current in the micrometer at voltage less than the stopping potential
indicates that there is a range of kinetic energies for these electrons.
If the experiment is repeated with radiation of greater intensity but the same
frequency, the maximum current in the microammeter increases, but the value
of stopping potential is unchanged.
The experiment can be repeated using ultra-violet radiation of different
frequencies, measuring the stopping potential for each frequency.
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is plotted against the
frequency of the radiation.
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Conclusion
1. The photoelectrons have a range of kinetic energies,
from zero up to some maximum value. If the
frequency of the incident radiation is increased the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons also
increases.
2. For constant frequency of the incident radiation, the
maximum kinetic energy is unaffected by the intensity
of radiation.
3. If the graph is extrapolated to the point where the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
zero, the minimum frequency required to cause
emission from the surface (the threshold frequency)
may be found.
But, based on wave theory, do not match the
observations!!
Comparison
Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light intensity
Classical prediction: Electrons should be absorb energy continuously
form the electromagnetic waves. A more intense light should transfer
energy into the metal faster, and the electrons should be ejected with
more kinetic energy.
Experimental result: The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons is independent of light intensity.
Time between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons
Classical prediction: For very weak light, a measurable time interval
should pass between the incidence of the light and the ejection of an
electron. This time is required for the electron to absorb the incident
radiation before it acquires enough energy to escape from the metal.
Experimental result: Electrons are emitted from the surface almost
instantaneously, even at very low intensities.
Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency.
Classical prediction: Electrons should be ejected at any
frequency of the incident light, as long as the intensity is high
enough, because energy is being transferred to the metal
regardless of the frequency.
Experimental Result: No electrons are emitted if the incident
light frequency falls below some threshold frequency, which
is characteristic of the material being illuminated. No
electrons are ejected below this threshold frequency
regardless of how intense the light is.
Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light
frequency.
Classical prediction: No relationship should exist between
the frequency of the light and electron kinetic energy. The
kinetic energy should be related to the intensity of the light.
Experimental result: The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons increases with increasing light frequency.
Einsteins theory of photoelectric emission
In 1905, Albert Einstein developed the theory of quantised
energy to explain all the observations associated with
photoelectric emission.
He proposed that light radiation consists of a stream of energy
packets called photons.
A photon is the special name given to a quantum of energy when the
energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
When a photon interacts with an electron, it transfer all its
energy to the electron.
It is only possible for a single photon to interact with a single
electron.
The photon cannot share its energy between several electrons.
This transfer of energy is instantaneous.
Examples
1. Photons of energies 1.0 eV, 2.0 eV and 3.0 eV
strike a metal surface whose work function is
1.8 eV.
a. State which of these photons could cause the
release of an electron from the metal.
b. Calculate the maximum kinetic energies of the
electrons released in each case. Give your answer
in eV and in J.
Wave-particle duality
X- ray
Electron
Evidence of duality
Electromagnetic radiation or particles will
travels in waves form which will have effect of
diffraction and interference.
Electromagnetic radiation or particles will
travels as particles which will have effect of
photoelectric.
Energy levels in atoms
Electron in an atom
can have only certain
specific energies.
These energies are
called the electron
energy level of the
atom.
The energy levels
represented as a
series of lines against
a vertical scale of
energy.
Every atom has a characteristic set of energy
levels whose values can be found
experimentally or calculated using wave
equations.
The electron in the hydrogen atom can have
any of these energy values, but cannot have
energies between them.
All levels have negative energy values because
the energy of an atom is taken as zero and
when the electron falls into the atom energy
is lost as electromagnetic radiation.
Electron normally occupies the
lowest energy levels. ground state.
If electron absorbs energy, maybe
by being heated or collision with
another electron, it may be
Ground state promoted to a higher energy level.
The energy absorbed is exactly
equal to the difference in energy of
the two levels.
Under these conditions the atom is
being in an excited state.
Excited state
Emission lines - Composition of light emitted by hot gases