History and Processes of Metal Joining

Dr. N.
RAMACHANDRAN, NITC 1
METAL JOINING
Even the simplest object is an assembly of
components
Complex ones - greater number of parts-
subassemblies joined to perform the function
METHODS-
WELDING,
BRAZING,
SOLDERING,
ADHESIVE BONDING,
MECHANICAL JOINING
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC 2NITC
WHY JOINING?
IMPOSSIBLE TO MAKE AS ONE PIECE
EASINESS AND ECONOMY IN
MANUFACTURE
EASY IN REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES DIFFER-
e.g.: Carbide tips of tools,corrosion resistant
parts, tungsten carbide tip of pens, brake shoes to
metal backing etc
TRANSPORTING SITE/ CUSTOMER

CLASSIFICATION
According to the STATE of the materials being
joined
Extent of external heating- PRESSURE
Use of FILLER materials

NITC
Joining Processes
LIQUID MECH.
SOLID JOINING
LIQUID-
CHEMICAL CUTTING ARC RESISTANCE SOLID
CONSUMABLE NON CONSUMABLE Brazing

Forge Soldering
Oxy-fuel SMAW Cold Adhesive
Thermit SAW GTAW Spot Ultrasonic Bonding
GMAW PAW Seam Friction
EBW Projection Explosion Fastening
FCAW Crimping
EGW LBW Flash Diffusion
Stud Seaming
ESW Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC Stitching
5
percussion
History of welding
And
American Welding Society

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC 6
Vulcan
The Roman
Fire God

Welding Heat Exchanger

Thermite Welding Patent 729573
HISTORY OF WELDING
The Bible mentions Tubal Cain, " forged all
types of tools from bronze and iron." He
may have been the first to join metals with
the forging process. His flame was an open
hearth into which he placed the metals to be
heated to the forging temperature.
In 1892 Morehead and Wilson accidentally
discovered how to make acetylene. It was
found that combining acetylene with
oxygen produced the hottest flame
temperature--5720 degrees F. Since this is
well above the melting point of most metals
the oxyacetylene welding process soon
developed.

HISTORY OF WELDING
3000 B.C.
It was around this time that the Sumerians joined
metals together in a hard soldering process to create
swords for battle.
In the tomb of Queen Pu-abi, several gold artifacts
buried with her show signs of being brazed.
Also around this time, the Egyptian culture used
charcoal fires to turn iron ore into sponge iron.
This was then beaten to weld the particles together,
creating some of the first accounts of pressure
welding (Sapp 2003)

1000 B.C.
The first forge welding came along around 1000
B.C. (Sapp 2003). This process involves heating the
metals and then using pressure to bond the pieces
together (Fogg 1997). An archeological dig found iron
and bronze artifacts that had been forge welded and
dated from this time.
Four boxes made of gold were also found around this
time in Ireland. These boxes showed evidence of being
pressure welded on some of the joints. This was done
through a hammering process that fused the pieces
together (Sapp 2003).

60 A.D.
Around 60 A.D., an author named Pliny wrote
about some of the information that he knew about
welding. He wrote about the brazing process for gold
at this time and talked of the salts that were used for a
flux mixture (Sapp 2003). Brazing is defined as, a
process intended to permanently join two or more
metals/materials together to form a single assembly
by heating them in the presence of a filler metal that
begins to melt above 450 C (840 F) (Kay
2003). Flux is a material used to melt and keep the
metal from oxidizing (Fogg 1997). Pliny also goes
on to describe a way to determine how easily a metal
will braze by looking at the metals color after it
oxidizes (Sapp 2003).

400 A.D.
The Iron Pillar in Delhi, India, is a monument to
welding technology itself. Created around 400 A.D.
and weighing around six tons, this giant column is
around 25 feet tall and 16 inches in diameter at the
base. Formed from iron billets, this column was
fused together by forge welds. This pillar is even
more impressive when one realizes that the iron
obtained for use at this time was harvested from
meteors, and only in small quantities (Sapp 2003)

1776
A scientist named Antoine Lavoisier
discovered in 1776 that if an atmosphere
were made entirely of oxygen, a metal
could be burnt in that environment. This
experiment with oxygen lead to a belief that
oxygen could be used to cut metals. This
left over metal oxide could also be melted at
lower temperatures, showing a change in
the state of the metal (Sapp 2003).

1801
Sir Humphrey Davy was also a leading
scientist in the production of modern
welding practices. In 1802, Sir Humphrey
created the first human created electric
arc. He used high voltage electricity and a
pair of carbon rods and produced a change
in one that jumped to the other. This is now
the basis for what is now known as arc
welding (Hoyle 2003).
1846
A British scientist named James
Nasmyth develops a uniform convex curve
to the sides of metal pieces to be Sir Humphrey Davy
welded. By doing this, the adhesion Bachman, Michal. (2003).
between the two metals starts at the middle Davy, sir humphery.
and works its way out. This helps in Retrieved December 1, 2003
expelling the flux and other impurities out from
of the joint, instead of trapping them in http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~
bachmanm/images/davy.jpg
which makes the joint weaker (Nasmyth
1997). Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC 17
1800-1850s
Scientists are using the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe as a laboratory tool
to examine refractory metals to the extreme temperature of 4468F.
1800
Alessandra Volta discovers that two dissimilar metals connected by
a substance became a conductor when moistened, forming a
'Voltaic Cell'.
1801
Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829) of London England, experimented
and demonstrated the arc between two carbon electrodes using a
battery. This was the forerunner to electric-arc lighting.
Vanadium was discovered in Mexico and was thought to be a form
of chromium for the next three decades. In 1830, it was
rediscovered by N.C. Sefstrom, and in 1887, H.E. Rosco isolated
the element from its compounds, mainly vanadite and carnotite. It
was named for the Scandinavian love goddess Vanadis.
1808
Magnesium is discovered as a chemical element by Sir Humphrey
Davy.
Sir Humphrey Davy proved the existence of aluminum.

1818
Robert Hare, a professor of Chemistry at the University of
Pennsylvania invents the hydrogen blowpipe.
1820
Hans Christian Oersted established connection between electricity
and magnetism.
Andre-Marie Ampere pioneered the field of electromagnetism.
1823
Charles Macintosh opens a rubber factory in Glasgow Scotland.
1827
Friedrich Wholer discovers aluminum in 1827
1828
Wallaston produced sponge platinum and welded it together by cold-
pressing, sintering and then hammering while the metal was hot.
1831
Michael Faraday invents the Dynamo creating electricity from
magnets

1835-1836
English chemist Edmund Davy (1785-1857), a cousin of Sir Humphrey Davy described the
properties of acetylene, but was unable to give correct formula.
Frenchman Sainte Claire Deville invents the oxygen-hydrogen blowpipe. Used mainly as
laboratory equipment for melting platinum and producing enamel.
1838
Charles Goodyear discovers the vulcanization of rubber, giving rise to the development of
rubber hoses for welding gases.
Eugene Desbassayrs de Richemont patents a process of fusion welding
1839
Michael Faraday discovers the homopolar device that generates voltage.
1840
Frenchman E. Desbassayns de Richemont invents the first air-hydrogen blowpipe.
de Richemont coins the phrase "soudure autogne", improperly translated into English as
"autogenous welding". Welding implies solid state whereas fusion welding implies a liquid
state.
1841
German H. Rossier used the air-hydrogen blowpipe for soldering lead.
1846
James Nasmyth, while investigating the proving of ship chain for the British Admiralty,
discovered and gave the reason for the convex forge welding "scarf". By preparing the
surfaces to be welded with a slightly convex surface the flux and swarf are squeezed out
of the joint. Otherwise they are trapped in the joint weakening it. This was the first
improvement in the forge welding process in 3000 years. Prior to this time the shape of the
joint was randomly flat concave or convex.

1856
James Joule begins to experiment with a relatively new form of power
called electricity. Through his experiments, James develops the first arc
welding techniques in history (Roberge 2003).
1860s
An Englishman named Wilde successfully used the theories of Volta and Davy
and the primitive electric sources of the time to make "Joins" and received a
patent for the earliest form of the art now known as "electric welding".
1860
French chemist Berthelot (1827-1907) accurately gave the correct formula of
C2H2 to acetylene. Also found it to be unstable (1863) under certain pressure
and temperature.
1862
A German, Friedrich Wohler (Woehler), produces acetylene gas from calcium
carbide.
1863
The first successful oil pipeline was built by Samuel Van Sickel at Titusville,
Pennsylvania where 2-1/2 miles of 2 inch diameter cast Pipeline was laid for
the transfer of 800 barrels of crude oil. The pipe was screw coupled and
hammered since welding was not yet invented for pipe joining. The Dresser
coupling, invented in 1891 was the first time a mechanical joint could be
assembled without excessive leaking. This method was the standard for
pipelining until the mid-1930s, when welding overtook the assembly process.

1865
John Motley Morehead, a graduate of North Carolina State
University in 1891, was working as a chemist for Willson Aluminum
Company determined that when heating slacked lime mixed with
coal tar and immersed in water would produce acetylene gas.
Acetylene is formed when bicarburet of H2 and ground carbon
produces a solid of calcium carbide when immersed in water. This
was originally discovered 56 years earlier by Edmund Davy.
1876
Otto Bernz of Newark New Jersey founded the Otto Bernz Company
selling plumber's tools and the gasoline torch "Alway's Reliable".
1877-1903
Development of gas welding and cutting, carbon arc and metal arc
welding.
Elihu Thomson invents a low-pressure resistance welding machine
which was accomplished by causing internal resistance enough to
reach the plastic stage of a metal. Later, it was referred to as
Incandescent Welding.
1877
During a lecture at the Franklin Institute (Philia), E. Thomson
reversed the process of (...)

1881
A man named Augusta De Meritens used a form of arc
welding to adhere two lead plates together to made a
battery. He worked along with another man named Nikolai
N. Bendaros, who would later gain the patent for this
welding process. Known as carbon arc welding, Bendaros
and another Russian scientist, Stanislaus Olszewski, would
obtain patents for this variation of arc welding in various
countries, including America and Britain in the next few
years. This type of welding would gain in popularity at the
end of the 19th century and into the first years of the 20th
century (Cary pg. 9).
1886
Bendaros receives a patent from Russia for a form of
carbon arc welding that actually could cut metal. The
process was named "Electrohefest" after the Greek god of
Fire and Blacksmithing, Hephaestus (Sapp 2003).
1881
Auguste DeMeritens working at an associated laboratory founded by the
periodical "l'Electricien" - Cabot Laboratory (Cabat), France was using arc heat to
join lead plates for storage battery. French Patent Number 146010 was issued.
1885
Nikolai N. Benardos (Bernados) and Stanislav Olszewaski (Olszewaski) secured a
British patent with carbon arc welding. Both men were working under the direction
of A. DeMeritens with the arc lighting industry at the Cabot Laboratory (Cabat) in
France. Carbon was oxidized at the carbon tip and created CO2 at the arc for
shielding. Both men had to generate their electricity using a steam-engine (prime-
mover) to turn the generator and produce electricity. The alternative was to use
batteries which did not last long because of the short-circuiting involved. Patents
applied for and received besides Britain: Belgium, Germany, Sweden, and France.
1886
N. N. Benardos obtained Russian Patent (No. 11982) electric arc welding with
carbon electrode called ""Elecktrogefest" or "Electrohephaestus". The methods of
cutting and welding metals by the arc was termed "Electrohefest" in memory(sic)
of Hephaestus, the ancient Greek god of Fire and Blacksmith work. (The Romans
renamed Hephaestus to Vulcan and which is shown on the title page, giving
instruction to the craftsmen forging metal.)
Benardos receives permission from the Russian Government to organize
production in 1885 for "The production of this plant is based on welding and
brazing by electricity and also producing devices for electrical illumination"
(Note: emphasis mine)
Electric furnace installed for production of aluminum alloys. An important step in
early development of the Aluminum industry.
1887
N.N. Benardos and S. Olszewaski secured an American Patent for
the welding apparatus. (U.S. Patent No. 363320, May 17)
The "blowpipe" or "torch", using the gases acetylene and liquefied
air or oxygen, was developed.
Thomas Fletcher develops blowpipe that could be used with either
hydrogen or coal gas and oxygen
An English shop began making tanks, casks, and iron garden
furniture with the electric arc process.
1888
Benardos/Olczewski granted patent 12984 for Carbon Arc Welding.
1889
Hans Zerner is issued German Patent 53502.3.12.1889 for the Twin
Carbon Arc welding process?.
C. Coffin is issued patent 395878, 'Process of Electric Welding'.
The US Commissioner to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition upon
seeing the arc welding process demonstrated wrote in a report "...As
the metal is burnt and brittle where it is welded, the process is not a
success."

1890
C.L. Coffin discovers a method of transferring metal from a metal electrode to
the joint to fill the gap in the joint. For his work, Coffin was able to patent his idea,
which was the first to use a metal electrode (Cary pg. 9).
C. L. Coffin in Detroit Michigan awarded first U.S. Patent (No. 419032, Jan 1) for
metal electrodes. This was the first record of metal melted from an electrode and
actually carried across the arc to deposit filler metal in the joint to make the weld. One
electrode was carbon and the other electrode was filler material.
Coffin also described the GTAW beginnings when a weld was made in non-oxidizing
atmospheres.
A bank robber in Great Britain used the newly developed "blowtorch" to gain access
to bank vaults.
1892
Canadien Thomas 'Carbide' Willson and American James Turner Moorhead begin to
commercially produce acetylene as a product from calcium carbide in Spray, North
Carolina.
Slavianoff suggests that a bare metallic electrode could be substituted for the carbon
electrodes of the Benardos process.
Concurrently, C. L. Coffin is also credited with introducing the bare metallic electrode
in the US
Baldwin Locomotive Works was using Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) for locomotive
maintenance. The weld joints were hard and brittle because of the carbon flaking off
into the weld puddle.
1886-1898
Elihu Thompson of the Thompson Welding Co. invented Resistance Welding (RW).

1895
The combustion of Oxygen and Acetylene was
discovered by Henri LeChatelier in his home country of
France. Describes combustion of acetylene with equal
volume of oxygen proceeds in two stages:
Step 1: 4 CO + 2O2 = 4CO2
Step 2: 2 H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Machine for liquid air generation placed in operation
Lord Reyleigh and Sir William Ramsey discover Argon
(Ar).
Konrad Roentgen (Bavaria) observed the effects of x-
radiation while passing electric current through a vacuum
tube.

1895-1905
During a 10 year period in the U.S. and at a rate of one
accident per day, boilers were exploding with the loss of
life from the accidents at twice that rate.
1900
E. Fouch and F. Picard develops oxyacetylene torch in
France.
1901
Menne invented the Oxygen Lance in Germany.
Soon after Charles Picards invention of the oxyacetylene
blowpipe in Paris France, this invention was called upon
to repair a cast iron part on an acetylene pump. Quite by
accident, the filler metal had enough silicon present to
prevent the formation of the excessively hard white iron.
1902
President Teddy Roosevelt took over the Panama Canal
project from the French.
1903
Hans Goldschmidt of Essen, Germany invented Thermit Welding (TW), an
exothermic reaction between aluminum powder and a metal oxide.. Used to weld
railroad rails together.
Oxyacetylene is applied commercially.
1904
Concentrated Acetylene Company invents the portable cylinder for the auto
headlights.
1905
L. W. Chubb of Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing, East Pittsburg, PA,
experiments with electrolytic condensers and rectifiers and found that wires could be
connected to aluminum plates. Also found that copper could be joined in a like
manner. When the cells discharged, sparks were formed.
1907
Two German welders came to the U.S. and formed Siemund-Wienzell Electric
Welding Co. and patented a metal arc welding method. Another German formed
company, Enderlein Electric Welding Co. also started up. This was the beginning of
the arc welding industry in the U.S.
Lincoln Electric Company of Cleveland Ohio began by manufacturing electric motors
in 1895. By 1907, Lincoln Electric were manufacturing the first variable voltage DC
welding machine.
1907-1914
Oscar Kjellberg (pronounced 'Shellberg') of Sweden and the ESAB (Elektriska
Svetsnings-AtkieBolaget) Company invented the covered or coated electrode by
dipping bare iron wire in thick mixtures of carbonates and silicates. The purpose of
the coating was to protect the molten metal from oxygen and nitrogen. His pioneering
of covered electrode development paved the road during the next twenty years in the
research of reliable flux coated electrodes.
1908
Oscar Kjellberg received Patent No. 231733 for the coated welding
electrode.
N. N. Benardos develops electroslag welding process.
1909
Strohmenger developed the Quasi-arc electrode which was wrapped in
asbestos yarn.
The keel of the H.M.S. TITANIC was laid on March 31 at Harland and
Wolff shipyard.
Schonner, a physicist with BASF (Badischen Anilen und SodaFabrik)
invents the plasma arc system using a gas vortex stabilized arc.
First industrial application of plasma at BASF (Badische Anilin und
Sodafabrik) by a physicist manufacturing nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
1910
Charles Hyde of Great Britain is issued a patent for brazing steel tubes. By
clamping two pieces into position, copper is placed in the joints as metallic
strips, plating or powder mixed in a paste. Heated in a hydrogen furnace
(oxygen-free atmosphere) and by capillary attraction flows copper into the
joint
1911
H.M.S. TITANIC is launched on May 31.
First attempt to lay 11 miles of pipeline using oxy-acetylene welding near
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
American physicist (Matters) developed a plasma arc torch for heating a
metal fusing furnace. Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC 31
1912
Lincoln Electric Co. introduced the first welding machines after
experimentation started in 1907.
E. G. Budd Spot Welds (SW) the first automobile body in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
Langmuir gives the "plasma" to a gas or gas mixture brought to such a
high temperature that all diatomic molecules are dissociated and the
atoms partially ionized and where all monotomic gases are fully ionized.
Firecracker welding technique, a version of shielded metal arc welding is
patented in Germany.
Strohmenger introduced coated metal electrodes in Great Britain. The
electrodes had a thin wash coating of lime or clay resulting in a stable
arc.
Strohmenger obtained US patent covering an electrode coated with a
blue asbestos with a binder of Sodium Silicate (NAXX). This was the first
electrode which produced weld metal free of impurities.
1913
Avery and Fisher develop the acetylene cylinder in Indianapolis, Indiana.
1914
A 34 mile pipeline was laid near Enid, Oklahoma using oxy-aceylene
welding for the oil industry.
1915-1916
Underwater cutting was carried out but interest did not come about until 1926.
1916
Companies licensed resistance welding equipment, mostly spot welding was the
intended use.
1917
Because of a gas shortage in England during World War I, the use electric arc
welding to manufacture bombs, mines, and torpedoes became the primary
fabrication method.
1918
Admiralty testing of metal-arc welding on Barge Ac 1320 leads Lloyd's Register to
permit metal-arc welding in main structures on an experimental basis.
1917-1920
During World War I, a Dutchman, Anthony Fokker, began using welding in the
production of Fuselages in German fighter planes.
HMS Fulagar (Fullagar) was first all welded hull vessel - Great Britain.
The repair of sabotaged German ships in New York Harbor highlighted the first
important use welding because the German merchant marines tried to destroy
the ships boilers on 109 ships. A team of engineers from a railroad company
(possibly the Rock Island Line) was tasked to the repair. Later, 500,000 troops
were delivered to the European War in France using these repaired ships. The
success of the weld repairs catapulted welding to the arena for manufacturing
and repair and dashed it sordid past as a controversial operation.

1919
President Woodrow Wilson established The United States Wartime Welding
Committee of the Emergency Fleet Corporation under the leadership of Dr. Comfort
Avery Adams.
Dr. Comfort Avery Adams, held a meeting on January 3rd to form the "American
Welding Society ". The Constitution of this meeting was approved on March 27.
C. J. Holslag used Alternating Current (AC) for welding, but this was not popular until
1930.
The AWS Constitution of the January meeting was approved on March 27.
Reuben Smith developed and patented the paper-coated electrode. The weld did not
leave a slag and produced an acceptable weld.
1920s
Various welding electrodes were developed:
Mild steels electrodes for welding steels of less than 0.20% carbon;
Higher carbon and alloy electrodes; and
Copper alloy rods.
Researchers found that Oxygen (O2) and Nitrogen (N2) when in contact with molten
metal caused brittle and porous welds.
Alexandre and Langmuir, from General Electric Co., used Hydrogen in chambers to
weld. Began with two carbon electrodes and later switched to Tungsten.
Bundy-Weld of Bundy Company, Detroit Michigan uses sheetmetal coated with a
copper paste and is rolled tightly around itself and placed in a furnace. The brazed
joint is formed into one piece tubing.
The automotive industry began using Automatic Welding with a bare wire fed to the
workpiece to the production of differential housings.
Poughkeepsie Socony (1235 tons), the first all-welded tanker was launched in the
USA.
1920
P.O. Nobel of General Electric Company developed automatic welding,
using Direct Current (DC) using the arc voltage to regulate feed rate.
Primary use was to repair worn motor shafts and crane wheels.
The British ship "Fulagar" was constructed by the Cammell-Lairds and
launched. In 1924, the ship grounded. A report in the British "Journal of
Commerce" (July 17, 1924) reported that she held steadfast and if rivets
were used in the construction, the ship would surely have opened up and
not be able to get off the bank.
After WW I, the Treaty of Versailles limited the Germans from designing and
building ships in excess of 10, 000 tons for armored ships and cruisers not
to exceed 6,000 tons. Welding was an experimental production option
before WW I but the Germans used it to develop the next stage of warships
by saving weight whereby the ship could then carry more armament or
armor plating in selected areas.
Torch brazing is in full swing using silver and gold filler metals and mineral
fluxes as protective cover.
Electrification of Russia begins utilizing hydroelectric power sources.
1921
Leslie Hancock pioneered flame cutting machine where the burner followed
the path of a magnetized stylus tracking around the contour of a metal
template. The stylus is propelled by a gramophone motor.

1922
"No longer in the tones of a Walt Whitmanesque muscular America, the
skyscraper celebrated the technology that was bringing the world together."
The first issue of the "Proceedings of the American Welding Society" was
published in January (Vol. 1, No. 1). The name was changed in February,
the next month, to "Journal of American Welding Society ".
The Prairie Pipeline Company weld an 8 inch diameter pipeline 140 miles
long to carry crude oil from Mexico to Jacksboro, Texas. The advantage of
welding over fittings saved the project 35 percent and the cost of weld, labor
and material was $2.00 per welded joint.
1923
Institute of Welding Engineers was formed and headquartered in New York
City.
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) was formed by the US Government
which was motivated by Thomas Edison's belief that history demonstrates a
relationship between technological innovation and national security.
1924
1st all-welded steel buildings constructed in U.S. by General Boiler Co. "to
the exclusion of rivets".
Resistance, gas and metallic arc welding in the manufacturing of all steel
automobile bodies at the E.G. Budd Manufacturing Company.
Mechanical flash welder used for joining rails together.
First recognition of welding design was presented in papers written by: J. C.
Lincoln, S. W. Miller, C. J. Holslag, H. A. Woofter, and J. H. Deppler.
1925
ASME Boiler Code Construction Code Section VIII is issued for unfired pressure
vessels.
AWS Board of Directors approves "Standardization of Hose Connections for Welding,
and Cutting Torches and Regulators"
AWS held First Welding Show with the National Fall Meeting, 21-23 October, in Boston.
A.O. Smith fabricates a single-piece heavy walled pressure vessel entirely by welding
and was PUBLICLY tested then placed in an oil cracking service.
1926
H.M. Hobart and P.K. Devers used atmospheres of Helium and Argon for welding with a
bare rod inside the atmosphere. Due to the impurities of the inert gases and the
corresponding high cost along with a lack of knowledge about current density,
commercial applications were not realized at this time.
UNA-METHOD - Trade name for the rail joint welding process, arc welding apparatus,
electrodes and supplies. UNA Welding & Bonding Co. Cleveland Ohio.
FUSARC - (need info)...?
Irving Langmuir, a noted chemist with General Electric Co. developed the Atomic
Hydrogen Welding (AHW) Process. Co-authored with R. A. Weinman the paper was
"Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding"
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) employee, P. W. Swain authored a paper "X-ray tests
of weld " which was to have an impact with the welding industry much longer than the
introduction of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding. The technique used a gamma-ray
radiation as a shadow method to detect flaws in cast or welded steels. The techniques
was used to detect flaws on the US Navy 9000 tonne heavy cruisers. The process was
later identified as a Nondestructive test method and contributed to the success of
developing improved steel castings for the U.S. Navy.
Landstroth and Wunder of A. O. Smith Co. solid extruded heavy coatings for metal-arc
welding electrodes.
1927
Lindberg's Ryan monoplane fuselage was manufactured with welded steel
alloy tubing.
Soviet Union production of Resistance Welding machines at Elektrik Works
called the "AT-8" and the "ATN-8: apparatus's for spot-welding and the "AS-
1" and the "AS-25-1" for buttwelding.
John J. Chyle of A. O. Smith Corp. invented and patented the first
extruded, all-position, cellulosic, titanium dioxide later classified as E6010
type welding electrode.
1928
In East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on the Turtle Creek, America's First All-
Welded Railroad Bridge was erected by Westinghouse Electric and
Manufacturing Company. Westinghouse used the bridge to transport the
large generators from facilities to the rest of the country by way of the
railways. Weighing in at 20,000 pounds and at 62 foot long, the bridge was
manufactured without the use of rivets, a common method of bridge
construction of those days. The testing of the bridge was completed by
driving a locomotive on the bridge. (Information Courtesy of Mr. LaFave)
Code for Fusion Welding and Gas Cutting in Building Construction
(predecessor of AWS D1.1) was issued by the American Welding Society.

1929
Lincoln Electric Co. started production of heavy coated electrodes
(Fleetweld 5) and sold the electrodes to the public. Sues A.O. Smith
and wins.
1st European All-Welded bridge in Lowicza, Poland. Designed in
1927 by Professor Stefana Bryly and spanning the Sludwie River
this bridge was still in use as late as 1977, whereby it was being
replaced with a newer highway and bridge which is designed for
wider traffic. The Polish Government planned to move the bridge 80
meters up stream and establish the bridge as a historical monument.
In 1995, AWS President ED Bohnart presented to the Government
of Poland, the AWS Historic Welded Structure Award.
Welding symbols are established by the American Welding
Society
General Electric experiments with "Controlled-Atmosphere brazing",
using hydrogen gas for copper to steel brazes.
Welding conferences are held on the campuses of Lehigh and
Syracuse

1930-1940s
Atomic hydrogen arc welding process developed. Found that hydrogen
was liberated releasing heat, which was 1/2 of the BTU of acetylene.
Used primarily for tools steels. Development included an automatic
version of the process.
1930
Specifications for welding electrodes were beginning to be written.
H. M. Hobart issued Patent Number 1746081, for "Arc Welding" and P. K.
Devers was issued Patent Number 1746191 for "Arc Welding" on Feb 4
for using a concentric nozzle with a wire feed. This became known later
as Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). Work was based on various
atmospheres in 1926.
Germany started development work to find a suitable substitute for their
dwindling supply of critical alloys. Experiments in the U.S. and Germany
found that Thermoplastics when heated could be pressed together and
obtain a permanent bond. In 1938 this principle was incorporated into
"Hot Gas" welding technique. Thermoplastic rod and sheet were heated
simultaneously by a stream of hot air while the rod was pressed into the
sheet causing a bond. World War II forced Germany to further develop
and use welded Thermoplastic as a corrosion resistant structural
material.

1930 continued.
Stud Welding (SW) was developed by the New
York Navy Yard to fasten wood to steel.
Submerged arc welding developed by National
Tube Co. in McKeesport, PA by Robinoff. Later
sold rights to Linde Air Products and renamed
UNION-MELT. Used in late 30s and early 40s in
shipyards and ordnance factories.
1st all-welded merchant ship was built in
Charleston, South Carolina.
Advancements in protective atmospheres that
dissociate chromium oxide from the surface of
stainless steel are performed in furnaces without
the mineral flux and were found in laboratories
with no commercial equivalence
1931
E. G. Budd Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia spot welded stainless steel
(18-8) and built the Privateer. The spot-welding was a process called
"shotwelding" a proprietary process developed by E.G. Budd.
Combustion Engineering shipped the first commercial land boiler fabricated by
ASME welding code to Fisher Body Div. of General Motors Corporation.
1932
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) developed by National Tube Co. in McKeesport,
PA by Robinoff. Later sold rights to Linde Air Products and renamed UNION-
MELT. Used in late 30s and early 40s in shipyards and ordnance factories.
British Corporation Register and Lloyd's introduce revised rules and approvals for
the use of welding on ships.
1933
Lincoln Electric Co. published 1st edition of "Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding
Design and Fabrication" with the purpose to have its customers use arc welding
efficiently. As a full service company, this book provided the customers a
knowledge of welding education and training.
English Antiquarian, H. A. P. Littledale patents the "Littledale Process (British
Patent No. 415,181)", following the same approach that Pliny and Theophilus
wrote about from the past two millenniums. Mixing copper salts with seccotine
glue ultimately would produce the following reaction {CuO+C -> Cu + CO} which is
where brazing would theoretically be reached. The temperature the reaction takes
place: 850C.

A major innovation was
described in a patent (US
Patent number 2,043,960)
that defines the Submerged
Arc Process invented by
Jones, Kennedy and
Rothermund. This patent
was filed in October
1935 and assigned to Union
Carbide Corporation. The
Specification states, Page 4,
Column 2, Lines 4 through 7
that the application was in
part a continuation of
applications Serial Numbers
657,836 and 705,893 filed in
February 1933 and January
1934.
1934
1st All-welded Excavator - HARNISCHFAGER Corp.
1st All-welded British bridge - Middlesborough, England
Lloyd's Rules for pressure vessels permits inspection
using X-Ray technology. In Scotland, welding was
beginning to be recognized as a separate crafts trade and
the Trade Unions were opposed to this recognition. The
General Secretary of the Boilermaker's Union argued that
it was unfair to condemn any young man to a lifetime of
welding. (Scotland). The Shipbuilding Employers insisted
on the separate recognition.
Westinghouse introduces the "Ignitron" which would
become the basis for resistance welding timing controllers.
American Welding Society presents John C. Lincoln the
Samuel Wylie Miller Medal for "Meritorious Achievement".
The award cited him for his work on the variable voltage
machine, the ductility and strength of welds, the carbon
arc automation process, and his efforts to expand the use
of welding in many industries.
1935
Granulated flux developed in 1932 and a continuous bare wire feed became
known as "Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)" and saw major applications in
shipbuilding and pipe fabrication (see 1932 for a different account).
Solid extruded electrodes are introduce in Britain and subsequently the first
British welding electrode standard written.
Welding has "Arrived" when London, England hosts 900 attendees at the "Great
Symposium" on the "Welding of Iron and Steel"
Solar Aircraft Company of San Diego California develops a flux to combat
welding problems with stainless steel manifolds for the U.S. Navy and was
regarded as a closely-guarded military secret. Where flux is applied to the front
of the weld, this was placed on the backside of weld, protecting from oxide
formation. Later, the product was developed further to accommodate the Heliarc
process.
1936
1st All-welded Box Girder Crane by HARNISCHFAGER Corp., Milwaukee WI.
1st All-welded Gear were fabricated by HARNISCHFAGER Corp. Milwaukee WI.
First Specification for Design, Construction, Alteration and Repair of Highway
and Railway Bridges by Fusion Welding was issued by the American Welding
Society.
Tentative Rules for the Qualification of Welding Processes and Testing of
Welding Operators was submitted by AWS.
The Soviet Union at the Electrik Works started using the electronic control gears
as the first valve timer with a thyristor contactor (RVE-1) for resistance welding.
Japan Welding Society stipulates the rules of qualification testing in "The
Standard of Qualification forDr. Arc
N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
Welding Operator". 45
1937
BS 538: Metal arc welding in mild steel, was issued, legitimizing arc
welding structural applications.
Norman Cole and Walter Edmonds, metallurgists from California are
granted a patent for their product named "Colmonoy". Derived from
COLe and edMONds and allOY.
1938
The Welding Handbook, First Edition was printed and edited by
William Sparagen and D. S. Jacobus.
Pressure vessel industry began implementing the high production
value of Automatic Welding.
The German Shipbuilding Industry uses welding extensively to
reduce the weight of warships and increase the overall size of the
ship. This restriction was put in place after World War I.
K. K. Madsen of Denmark describes Gravity Welding as a
specialized electrode holder and the mechanism which will maintain
a covered electrode in contact with the workpiece.
A.F. Wall purchases Colmonoy and renames to Wall-Colmonoy
(Detroit).

1939
Floyd C. Kelly of General Electric publishes "Properties of Brazed 12% Chrome Steel" as
an early investigation of the strength of brazed joints.4Aluminum Spot Welding saw
application in the Aviation Industry. He describes:
Single lap tensile specimens
45 degree vee-type tensile specimen
Butt brazed tensile specimens.
Aluminum Spot Welding saw application in the Aviation Industry.
Ultrasonic Fluxless soldering patented in Germany. Process is conceived in 1936.
Air Arc Gouging is developed (USA).
Stud Welding (Nelson Stud Welding Co.) used by the US Navy to reduce time installing
studs during fabrication of ships and aircraft carriers.
1940s
With World War II GTAW was found to be useful for welding magnesium in fighter planes,
and later found it could weld stainless steel and aluminum.
Canadian Welding Society (CWS) formed.
Exchequer, first all-welded ship built at Ingalls Shipyard in Mississippi.
J. Dearden and H. O'Neill (UK) discuss "Weldability" in terms of carbon equivalencies.
Sun Shipbuilding Company builds the world's largest ocean-going tanker, I. Van Dyck
(11650 DWT). This was the first large scale use of automatic welding applied in shipyard
work.
First mass soldering technique, Dip Soldering, is used for Printed Wiring Boards (PWB) to
keep up with the development of electronic equipment such as, Television, radios, etc.
Little advancement was made in brazing and there were no dry-hydrogen facilities, except
for laboratories, for brazing Stainless steel and there were no vacuum furnaces.
Germany was using 85Ag-15Mn brazing alloys as the best high temperature filler metal
available. Used for brazing hollow
Dr. N.sheet metal bladesNITC
RAMACHANDRAN, used in the turbine engines and 47
stators.
1940
Gas shielded metal arc welding developed by Hobart
and Devers at Battelle Memorial Institute.
1941
Engineers at Northrup Aircraft Co. and Dow Chemical
Co. developed the GMAW process for welding
magnesium, and later licensed it to Linde Co. with a
water cooled, small diameter electrode wires using CV
power. Because of the high cost of inert gas, the cost
savings were not recognized until much later.
PLUTO - PipeLine Under The Ocean was created using
the Flash Weld (FW) process for 1000 miles of 3 inch
diameter pipe, to assist in the invasion of Normandy
Beach, France. Once in place, the pipeline began
pumping 1 million gallons of petrol per day directly to
depots deep in the French country side.
Friction Surfacing. H. Klopstock and A. R. Neelands "An
Improved Method of Joining and Welding Metals" British
Patent 572789, October 1941.
1942
Chief of Research, V. H. Pavlecka, and engineer Russ Meredith of Northrup Aircraft Inc.
designed the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process to weld magnesium and
stainless steel. Alternate names are TIG (tungsten inert gas) and Argonarc and Heliarc.
Heliarc is the term originally applied to the GTAW process. (Patent Number 2274631, 24
February 1942).
The invention of GTAW was probably the most significant welding process developed
specifically for the aircraft industry and remained so until recently, with the Friction Sir
Weld process of the 1990's. Mr. Northrup of Northrup Aircraft Inc. was a visionary who
wanted an all-welded aircraft (i.e., manufacturing costs, and lightweightness of the
aircraft). Meredith was working from research of Devers and Hobart at General Electric
(1920s) who had experimented with tungsten arcs in non-oxidizing atmospheres. The high
reactivity of magnesium (Northrup's dream metal) would cause problems with more
conventional processes, so, Meredith to began developing a torch with better handling
characteristics and would use inert gas enshrouding tungsten. Thus, the Heli-arc process.
From the Dec 1942 Welding Journal: "The full importance of arc welding on the future of
magnesium alloys cannot be fully appreciated at this time but the fabrication of these
strong light alloys has opened the possibilities that were not considered even a year ago.
For the man in industry, this method of joining offers simplicity of structure, ease and
speed of fabrication and over-all economy."
US Patent 2269369, Jan 6, 1942 issued to George Hafergut for Firecracker Welding.
Traveling 285 miles north of Edmonton Canada and barging 1100 miles north to the
Norman Well refinery a base camp was setup to build the Canadian Oil (CANOL) project.
Working for 20 months, 1800 miles of pipeline was laid along side of 2000 miles of road.
The last weld was laid on 1 February 1944. On 1 April 1945 the wells were shut down.
Second Edition of the Welding Handbook was printed and issued.
SAW proves it worthiness during World War II with the building of the Liberty Ships.
G.L. Hopkins of Woolrich Arsenal defines the problem of cracking in alloy steels and
hydrogen in welding electrodes.
1943
Union-Melt is now commonly referred to as Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW). The process used rods rather than wire filler metal and could
weld work pieces up to 2 -1/2 inches thick.
Sciaky (USA) markets the three-phase resistance welder.
1944
1st Low-hydrogen electrodes used in fabrication of alloy armor tanks
vehicles by the Heil Corp in response to the chrome and nickel
shortages from World War II for the U.S. Army.
The Bureau of Navy Aeronautics designed and E. G. Budd Mfg. built
the "Conestoga", a stainless steel aircraft. Despite the success of
the aircraft, aluminum and rivets became the influencing factor in
aircraft design.
1945
After World War II, the Allies brought from Germany the alloy
combination, 85Ag-15Mn which has a 1760F brazing temperature.
ElectoBrazing is used for manufacturing shafts to gears.

1946
Sprayweld Process (US Patent 2361962) issued to Wall-Colmonoy uses
an alloy powder spray which produces a smooth, welded deposits.
General Electric Co. Ltd (UK) invents the Cold Pressure Welding
Process.
High Frequency (HF) stabilized AC tungsten-arc welding is used for
aluminum alloys.
1947
The Final Report of a Board of Investigation, ordered by the Secretary of
the Navy, "To Inquire Into The Design and Methods of Construction of
Welded Steel Merchant Vessels, 15 July 1946" was issued.
Canadian Welding Bureau was created as a division of the Canadian
Standards Association
The Austrian Welding Society is formed and publishes a monthly
magazine "Scheisstechnik"
Nicrobraz, developed by Robert Peaslee of Wall-Colmonoy, is a 2500F
nickel alloy braze filler metal used in hydrogen furnaces. Used for
stainless steel fuel supply connecting injectors to injector pumps for 18
cylinder reciprocating engines. The fledgling aircraft engine industry
needed something else for engines to experience a hot shutdown
without blowing the silver braze filler metal out from the brazed joints.
Typical alloy was 85Ag-15Mn (BAg-23).
1948
The Ohio State University Board of Trustees established
the Department of Welding Engineering on January 1 as
the first of its kind for a Welding Engineering cirriculum
at a University. OSU pioneered the Welding Engineering
through an emphasis in the Industrial Engineering
Department the previous nine years. The advantages of
this engineering degree is 1) Enable satisfactory
administration of problems relating to education and
research in the welding field. 2) Recognition is given to the
Welding Engineer as an entity among applied sciences. 3)
A degree is authorized which is descriptive of a particular
discipline imposed in training for professional work in the
field.
Air Reduction Company develops the Inert-Gas Metal-
Arc (MIG) process.

SIGMA Welding (Shielded Inert Gas Metal Arc) was developed to weld
plate greater than1/8 inch instead of the "Heli-Arc" welding process. The arc
is maintained in a shield of argon gas between the filler metal electrode and
the workpiece. No flux is used. Licensed by Linde Air Products Co.
1948-1949
Curtiss-Wright Corporation looks at brazing as a strong, lightweight
process for durable assemblies.
1949
American Westinghouse introduces and markets welding machines using
Selenium Rectifiers.
US Navy uses inert-gas metal arc welding for aluminum hulls of 100 feet in
length.
1950
The Kurpflaz Bridge in Germany was built as the first welded orthotropic
deck.

1950s
Electron Beam (EB) welding process developed in France by J. A.
Stohr of the French Atomic Energy Commission. First Public disclosure
was 1957.
Wave soldering is introduced to keep up with the demand of Printed
Wiring Boards used in the electronics age.
Research on testing of brazed joint begins as serious endeavor for the
next ten years.
1950
Electroslag Welding (ESW) is developed at the E. O. Paton Welding
Institute, Ukraine USSR.
Third Edition of the Welding Handbook is printed by AWS.
Flash Butt Welding is the standard for welding rail line construction.

1951
Russia use Electroslag Welding (ESW) process in production.
The Philip Roden Co. of Milwaukee Wisconsin announces the
DryRod electrode oven. This oven is intended to provide a
controlled moisture environment of 0.2% moisture standard set
forth by the government. This oven provides adjustable
temperature control of 200-550 F, vented and holding 350 pounds
of electrodes.
1953
Modifying the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process,
Lyubavskii and Novoshilov used CO2 with consumable electrodes.
Resulted in hotter arc, uses higher current, and larger diameter
electrodes.
The Ohio State University established a Welding Engineering
College curriculum out of the Industrial Engineering Department.
1957
Flux Cored-Arc Welding (FCAW) patented and reintroduced by
National Cylinder Gas Co.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Process developed by Robert M.
Gage
Russia, Britain, and USA independently develop a short-
circuiting transfer for low-current low-voltage welding in a carbon
dioxide atmosphere.
Braze repair process for cracks in jet engine combustion
chambers and transition ducts.
1958
The Soviet Union introduced the Electroslag Welding (ESW) Process at the
Brussels World Fair in Belgium. This welding process had been used since 1951
in the USSR which was based on the concept and work of an American, R. K.
Hopkins. Perfected at the Paton Institute Laboratory in Kiev, Ukraine, USSR
and the Welding Research Laboratory in Braitislava, Czechoslovakia.
AWS Committee on Brazing and Soldering is formed to develop a test for
evaluating strength of brazed joints. Robert Peaslee proposes a test in the
Welding Journal.
1959
Electroslag welding process was first used at the Electromotive
Division of General Motors in Chicago and was called the
"Electro-Molding Process".
Development of Inside-Outside Electrode which did not require
an external gas shielding - Innershield from Lincoln Electric Co.
1958-1959
Short Arc (Micro-wire Short Arc) developed from refined power
supplies and smaller diameter wires.
1960s
Pulsed Arc Welding...(more to follow)
Space Program is underway...(more to follow)
Difficult to stabilize GTAW at below 15 amps, Microplasma is
developed to overcome the limitation.

1960
Development of a cold wall vacuum furnace.
First laser beam produced using a ruby crystal for the Light Amplification
Stimulated Emission Radiation (LASER).
Explosive welding is developed in USA.
Hughes Aircraft Company (Mainar) develops the first ruby laser
(springtime).
Bell Telephone Laboratories (Ali Javan) developed and presented the first
gas laser using neon and helium (fall time)
1962
The Mercury Space Capsule is formed using inner and outer titanium shell,
seam welded together using a three-phase resistance welder by Sciaky.
1963
U.S.S. Thresher sinks off the coast of New Hampshire and by December,
the U.S. Navy charters the Submarine Safety Program (SUBSAFE) to
control the fabrication, inspection and quality control of submarine
construction. The presumed failure was with a silver-brazed piping joint, but
after the investigation, the whole welding and brazing program was suspect.
Included was the material properties of the welding and brazing filler metals.
1965-1967
CO2 lasers are developed for cutting and welding.
1967
H. J. Clarke makes the following Predictions during the AWS Plummer
Lecture in Houston as he ties the current state of technology of welding to
the future of progress:
World's Population would be greater than 5 Billion.
Large scale farming of the ocean and fabrication of synthetic protein.
Controlled thermonuclear power as a source of energy.
General immunization against bacteria and virile infections, perfected
and available.
Primitive forms of life will created in the lab.
Automation will have advance for performance of menial chores and
complicated functions.
Housewives would be ordering groceries and everyday items from
central stores linked to the home electronically. (!!!)
Children will be receiving education at home - "either by television or
with personal teaching machines and programmed instructions"
Moon - mining and manufacture of propellant and on Mars,
permanent unmanned research stations.
Weather manipulation by the military.
Effective anti-ballistic missile defense in the form of air-launched
missiles and directed energy beams.
Libraries will be "computer-run"
Gravity welding is introduced in Britain after its initial discovery by
Japan.
1969
The Russian Welding Program in Space began by producing Electron
Beam welds on SOYUZ-6. Welding an AMG6 and DM-20 aluminum
alloys with the Vulkan process. Sponsored by the E. O. Paton Welding
Institute Academy of Science.

1970
As miniaturization developed from the pressure to increase
component densities, Surface Mount Technology is developed.
This required new ways to make soldered joints, including the
development of vapor phase, infrared, hot gas and other re-
flow technologies.
First AWS International Brazing Conference including 24
papers presented created much interest in the brazing
process.
BP discovers oil off the coast of Scotland.
1971
British Welding Institute (Houldcroft) adds oxidizing gas jet
around laser beam to develop laser cutting.

1973
The American Astronauts used Electron
Beam welding process in June 1973 welding
Aluminum Alloy 2219-T87, Stainless 304 and
Pure Tantalum.
Welding equipment manufacturers
concentrate on equipment refinement instead
of new processes.
Two Supertankers, Globtik Tokyo and
Globtik London (476025 DWT) were built for
carrying 153 million gallons (3 million barrels)
of crude oil

1976
First automotive production application of lasers weld begins with General
Motors Corporation, Dayton Ohio using two 1.25 kW CO2 lasers. for welding
valve assemblies for emission control systems.
1977
The US Federal Highway Administration issues a moratorium of Electroslag
Welding (ESW) when cracks are discovered during an inspection of a bridge in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on an interstate highway. Failure analysis was
conducted by Lehigh University on Interstate 79.
1980
The Fort McHenry tunnel contract, for 750 Million Dollars, is awarded to
begin construction, completing Intestate 95 through Baltimore, Maryland. This
is the largest tunnel of its kind, 180 feet at the bottom with two separate four
lane immersed tunnels removing 3.5 million cubic yards of dredge.

1983
Homopolar pulse welding variation of the upset welding process research
begins at the University of Texas at Austin at the Center for
Electromechanics.
1987
Laser research begins a unique method for depositing complex metal alloys
(Laser Powder Fusion).
1991
TWI of Cambridge England develops the Friction Stir Weld (FSW) process
in its laboratory. This process differs from conventional rotary technology
whereby a hard, non consumable, cylindrical tool causes friction, plasticizing
two metals into a Solid-State Bond. No shielding gas or filler metal is
required. Metals joined successfully include, the 2XXX, 6XXX and 7XXX
series aluminum. NASA is the first US venture which welded the massive fuel
tank for the Space Shuttle.
Brazing Handbook (Fourth Edition) shows the data of the filler metal/base
metal failure transitions between 1T and 2T overlap and is the key for the
design data (factor of safety).
1996
Over 7,00,000 brazements are produced for the aircraft industry in the US
and Canada.
Over 132,010,00 units of brazed automotive parts are produce.
1999
The Edison Welding Institute develops a solution to obtaining deeper
penetration of a GTA weld by introducing FLUX onto the surface of the weld.
This FLUX helps drive the welding arc heat deeper into the weld joint and
permits 300 percent more penetration.
2000
Magnetic Pulse Welding (MPW) is introduced by Pulsar Ltd. of Israel using
capacitive power as a solid state welding process. Discharging 2 Million amps
in less than 100 microseconds this process can create a metallurgical, a non-
metallurgical or a mechanical lock, depending on the substrate involved. No
heat affected zone (HAZ) is created since only a rise of 30oC occurs.
Tailored welded blanks of aluminum are used where spot welding was once
performed.

2000
Researchers from Argonne National Laboratory use the energy of
the x-ray to weld metal-matrix composite (Ti or Al / Al2O3 or
SiC) materials.
Diode laser welding, once limited to compact disks, laser
printers, and laser pointers, are now making their way to the
manufacturing floor. Welding Type 304 Stainless steel (0.024
inch), Titanium foil (0.005 inch thick) and laser brazing with a
silicon-bronze brazing wire.
Conductive heat resistance seam welding (CHRSEW) is
developed. The process uses steel cover sheets placed on top of
aluminum butted together. Using conventional seam welding, the
heat generated from the steel forms a molten interface on the
aluminum and fusion is made at the butt joint. The steel covers
are then removed.

2001
AWS D17.1, "Specification for Fusion Welding for Aerospace
Applications" is published in March. The efforts of approximately 50
individuals from a cross-section of the Aviation Industry and government
produces the first commercial aviation welding specification.
Flame brazing 5XXX aluminum alloys using non-corrosive flux.
Sulzar Elbar introduces laser powder welding technology. Permits
rebuilding of substrate material (High Creep Resistance) and reproduction
of the single crystal structure.
2002
From Linde Gas in Germany, a Diode laser using process gases and "active-gas
components" is investigated to enhance the "key-holing" effects for laser welding.
The process gas, Argon-CO2, increases the welding speed and in the case of a diode
laser, will support the transition of heat conductivity welding to a deep welding, i.e.,
'key-holing'. Adding active gas changes the direction of the metal flow within a weld
pool and produces narrower, high-quality weld.
CO2 Lasers are used to weld polymers. The Edison Welding Institute is using
through-transmission lasers in the 230-980 nm range to readily form welded joints.
Using silicon carbides embedded in the surfaces of the polymer, the laser is capable
of melting the material leaving a near invisible joint line.
2003 2004 2005 Future developments.
ABOUT AWS
The American Welding Society (AWS) was founded in 1919 as a
multifaceted, nonprofit organization with a goal to advance the
science, technology and application of welding and related
joining disciplines
The Engineering
Societies Building (left)
in New York City was the
home of AWS until 1961
when the Society moved
to the United Engineering
Center, also in New York
City.

From factory floor to high-rise construction, from
military weaponry to home products, AWS continues
to lead the way in supporting welding education and
technology development to ensure a strong,
competitive and exciting way of life for all Americans.
The Society
moved its
headquarters to
Miami in 1971
(left).

The American Welding Society, in
conjunction with the Department of
Energy, has put together a vision that will
carry the welding industry through 2020.

Technical Publications
AWS offers over 300 books, charts, videos,

replicas, proceedings, and software. 160 AWS-
developed codes, recommended practices, and
guides are produced under strict American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) procedures,
including one of the most consulted codes in the
world, D1.1 Structural Welding Code - Steel.

Foundation
Founded in 1989, to support research and

education in welding and related technologies. It
is committed to annually awarding fellowships to
deserving graduate students for important
research in areas important to the requirements
of industry. Accordingly, each year the AWS
Foundation administers six $20,000 grants -
matched in kind by the participating
universities. The award of scholarships to
vocational and undergraduate college students is
also a high priority and a student loan program
has also been developed to prepare students for
welding relatedDr. careers.
N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC 72
The Professional Program
The AWS Professional Program offers a broad

spectrum of Technical Papers describing the
latest findings in welding research, processes and
applications. Special sessions and gatherings
exploring the boundaries of industry issues are
also significant features of the convention.
Subjects cover an entire range of industry
concerns from the joining of space age materials
to production management techniques, testing,
quality assurance and more.

Which welding process(es) will see an
increase in use and which will see a
decrease in use during the next decade?
There was much speculation, but
almost unanimously the process
chosen for decline was shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW). A very few
speculated a decline in the use of gas
metal arc (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW). A significant group
felt the continuous wire processes
(FCAW, GMAW) would experience the
most use. The GTAW process was the
next most mentioned. One of the
reasons stated for its increase was "the
need for high-quality work on thin
materials." NITC
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, 74
Welding Forges into the
Future
Where do you see the use of welding automation

heading in your industry?
In what areas of welding do we need more
knowledge?
Safety and Health. The industry needs more knowledge and
awareness regarding the hazards of welding, according to the
respondents.
Welding of the newer grades of high-strength steels,
high- alloy steels and heat treatable steels.
We need to "keep up the 'how to weld' information with the increase in
'new' alloys, which are becoming more difficult to weld."
Automation. A variety of topics relating to automation. These
included training in computerization and automation; information on
short-run automation; and the need to create standard platforms for
welding equipment, robot controllers, sensing devices and other
automation peripherals.
The basics While universities and institutions are doing basic
research, they cannot tell you the best process and fastest speed for a
14-in. fillet weld."
What are the strengths of the welding
industry? What are its weaknesses?
What business improvements during the
next ten years would be in your company's
best interests?
What has to be done in the future to keep
the welding industry healthy?
More than 50% of the respondents believe
improving the image of welding so top students
will be drawn to the industry and bettering training
methods for welders and welding engineers are the
keys to welding's future.

Are you optimistic or pessimistic about the
future of your particular industry?
92% of respondents indicated they are at least

optimistic about the future.
One respondent summed up his reasons this
way:
Metallics will be around for a long time and
they will need to be joined.

Since time machines still exist only in the stories of H.
G. Wells and other works of science fiction, no one can
tell us exactly how welding will fare in the 21st century.
However, the people who responded to the Welding
Journal survey represent a cross section of fabricators
of welded products and producers of welding
equipment and related products. Together they offer a
wide range of experience and knowledge. Answering
the questions separately, in their respective cities, they
still formed a consensus. They agree the future looks
promising for welding. It remains and will continue to be
a productive, cost-effective manufacturing method.
However, steps must be taken to bring more skilled
personnel into the industry, or changes must be made
to accommodate for the lack of skilled personnel (e.g.,
welding automation). They also indicated the welding
industry must embrace all of the modern-day
technological tools to keep pace with the rest of the
world. .
LIQUID STATE PROCESSES
Partial melting and fusion of joint
Physical and mechanical changes taking place
Can be with application of pressure or by addition
of filler material
Prior to joining, PREPARATION TO BE DONE

STANDARDS- AWS; ASTM-
TYPES OF GROOVES, JOINTS
Types of welds and symbols
FILLET, SQUARE BUTT, SINGLE V,
DOUBLE V, SINGLE U, DOUBLE U,
SINGLE BEVEL BUTT, DOUBLE BEVEL BUTT,
SINGLE J BUTT, DOUBLE J BUTT,
STUD, BEAD(EDGE OR SEAL), PLUG,
SPOT, SEAM, MASHED SEAM,
STITCH, PROJECTION,
FLASH, UPSET etc. (REFER sketches supplied)
Standard location of elements of weld symbol
G- Grind C- Chip
F-File M-Machine
Length of weld
Unwelded length
Size R- Rolling
Finish symbol Weld all around

Specification
process. S L P
No tail-
SMAW
Field weld
Reference line
Arrow connecting reference
Other side of arrow line to arrow side of joint /to
edge prepared /member or
Near side of Arrow both
Groove face
GROOVE ANGLE
Joint angle
ROOT Root Face

WELD POSITIONS WELD MOVEMENTS
FLAT H
HORIZONTAL O
VERTICAL C
OVERHEAD J
U
ZIGZAG
WELDING TERMINOLOGY
Slide 2 of 18
WELDING TECHNIQUES
FOREHAND BACKHAND
THIN THICK
Same direction torch Opposite direction torch
Heat concentrated away from Heat concentrated on bead
bead
Broad bead
Even flow, rippled design
WELD POSITIONS
FLAT HORIZONTAL VERTICAL OVERHEAD

WELD MOVEMENTS
STRAIGHT
I
Z
L
ZIGZAG
O
ASME P Material Numbers Explained
ASME has adopted their own designation for welding processes,
which are very different from the ISO definitions adopted by
EN24063.
Description
Designation
OFW Oxyfuel Gas Welding
SMAW Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG/MAG)
FCAW Flux Cored Wire
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
PAW Plasma Arc Welding
Straight polarity = Electrode -ve
Reverse polarity = Electrode +ve
ASME F Numbers
F Number General Description

1 Heavy rutile coated iron powder electrodes :- A5.1 : E7024
2 Most Rutile consumables such as :- A5.1 : E6013
3 Cellulosic electrodes such as :- A5.1 : E6011
4 Basic coated electrodes such as : A5.1 : E7016 and E7018
5 High alloy austenitic stainless steel and duplex :- A5.4 : E316L-16
6 Any steel solid or cored wire (with flux or metal)
2X Aluminium and its alloys
3X Copper and its alloys
4X Nickel alloys
5X Titanium
6X Zirconium
7X Hard Facing Overlay
Note:- X represents any number 0 to 9
ASME A Numbers
These refer to the chemical analysis of the deposited weld and not
the parent material. They only apply to welding procedures in
steel materials.
Plain unalloyed carbon manganese steels.

A1
A2 to A4 Low alloy steels containing Moly and Chrome Moly

A8 Austenitic stainless steels such as type 316.

ASME Welding Positions
Note the welding progression, (vertically upwards or downwards),
must always be stated and it is an essential variable for both
procedures and performance qualifications.
Welding Positions For Groove welds:-
Test Position ISO and EN

Welding Position
Flat 1G PA
Horizontal 2G PC
Vertical Upwards Progression 3G PF
Vertical Downwards Progression 3G PG
Overhead 4G PE
Pipe Fixed Horizontal 5G PF
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Upwards 6G HL045
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Downwards 6G JL045

TYPICAL WELDS

HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL DOWNWARD VERTICAL UPWARD

OVERHEAD

Multiple-pass layers. Weld layer sequence

G
for Groove
Welds
F
for Fillet
Welds

G
for Groove
Welds
for Fillet
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
Welds 102
PREPARATION FOR PIPENITC
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, WELDING 104
Welding Positions For Fillet welds:-
Test Position ISO and EN

Welding Position
Flat (Weld flat joint at 45
1F PA
degrees)
Horizontal 2F PB
Horizontal Rotated 2FR PB

Vertical Upwards
3F PF
Progression
Vertical Downwards
3F PG
Progression
Overhead 4F PD
Pipe Fixed Horizontal 5F PF

Welding Positions
QW431.1 and
QW461.2
Basically there are three

inclinations involved.
Flat, which includes
from 0 to 15 degrees
inclination
15 - 80 degrees
inclination
Vertical, 80 - 90 degrees
For each of these
inclinations the weld
can be rotated from the
flat position to
Horizontal to overhead.

WELD BEND TEST
Nick break test

PREPARATION FOR PIPENITC
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, WELDING 112
Curved pipe
heated

ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION
Arc welding electrodes are identified using
the A.W.S, (American Welding Society)
numbering system and are made in sizes
from 1/16 to 5/16 .
An example would be a welding rod
identified as an 1/8" E6011 electrode.
The electrode is 1/8" in diameter
The "E" stands for arc welding electrode.
Next will be either a 4 or 5 digit number stamped
on the electrode. The first two numbers of a 4
digit number and the first 3 digits of a 5 digit
number indicate the minimum tensile strength (in
thousands of pounds per square inch) of the weld
that the rod will produce, stress relieved.
Examples would be as follows:
E60xx would have a tensile strength of 60,000 psi
E110XX would be 110,000 psi
The next to last digit indicates the position the
electrode can be used in.
EXX1X is for use in all positions
EXX2X is for use in flat and horizontal positions
EXX3X is for flat welding

The last two digits together, indicate the
type of coating on the electrode and the
welding current the electrode can be used
with. Such as DC straight, (DC -) DC
reverse (DC+) or A.C.
Type of coatings of the various electrodes
are explained elsewhere.
Examples of the type current each will work
with are as below.

ELECTRODES AND CURRENTS USED
EXX10 DC+ (DC reverse or DCRP) electrode positive.
EXX11 AC or DC- (DC straight or DCSP) electrode
negative.
EXX12 AC or DC-
EXX13 AC, DC- or DC+
EXX15 DC+
EXX16 AC or DC+
EXX20 AC ,DC- or DC+
EXX28 AC or DC+

CURRENT TYPES
SMAW is performed using either AC or
DCcurrent. Since DC current flows in one
direction, DC current can be DC straight,
(electrode negative) or DC reversed (electrode
positive). With DC reversed,(DC+ OR DCRP)
the weld penetration will be deep. DC straight
(DC- OR DCSP) the weld will have a faster melt
off and deposit rate. The weld will have medium
penetration.
Ac current changes it's polarity 120 times a
second by it's self and can not be changed as
can DC current.
ELECTRODE SIZE AND AMPS USED
The table shown will serve as
Electrode Table
a basic guide of the amp
range that can be used for ELECTRODE AMP PLATE
different size electrodes. DIAMETER RANGE
These ratings can be different
1/16" 20 - 40 UP TO 3/16"
between various electrode
manufactures for the same 3/32" 40 - 125 UP TO 1/4"
size rod.
The type coating on the 1/8 75 - 185 OVER 1/8"
electrode could effect the
5/32" 105 - 250 OVER 1/4"
amperage range.
Check manufacturers 3/16" 140 - 305 OVER 3/8"
recommended amperage
settings. 1/4" 210 - 430 OVER 3/8"
Note! The thicker the material 5/16" 275 - 450 OVER 1/2"
to be welded, the higher the
current needed and the larger
the electrode needed Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC 120
SOME ELECTRODE TYPES
E6010 :
Used for all position welding using DCRP. It produces a deep
penetrating weld and works well on dirty,rusted, or painted metals
E6011:
Same characteristics as of the E6010, but can be used with AC and
DC currents.
E6013:
Used with AC and DC currents. It produces a medium penetrating
weld with a superior weld bead appearance.
E7018:
Known as a low hydrogen electrode and can be used with AC or
DC. The coating on the electrode has a low moisture content that
reduces the introduction of hydrogen into the weld. The electrode
can produce welds of x-ray quality with medium penetration.
(This electrode must be kept dry. If wet, it must be dried in a rod
oven before use.) Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC 121
Effects of expansion and
contraction

CONTROLLING DISTORTION

HEAT AFFECTED ZONE


History and Processes of Metal Joining

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CONSUMABLE NON CONSUMABLE Brazing

American Welding Society

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Step 1: 4 CO + 2O2 = 4CO2

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Prior to joining, PREPARATION TO BE DONE

Finish symbol Weld all around

ROOT Root Face

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F Number General Description

Plain unalloyed carbon manganese steels.

A2 to A4 Low alloy steels containing Moly and Chrome Moly

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Test Position ISO and EN

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