ROCKETS AND MISSION ANALYSIS

Orbital Mechanics
Hohmann Transfer Orbit Summary
REVIEW OF CONIC SECTIONS
 Keplers Laws
Law 1:
The orbit of a planet/comet/spacecraft about the sun is an ellipse with
the suns center of mass at one focus

Law 2:
A line joining a planet and sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals
of time

Law 3:
The squares of the periods of planets are proportional to the cubes of
the their semi-major axes
 ORBITAL MECHANICS: SUMMARY
1 1 e cos


r a 1 e 2 a 1 e 2 Equation for conic sections (polar coordinates)
1 GM m 2 1 GM m 2
cos
Force balance on orbiting body, m, about larger
r h2 rmin
2
h
h2
body M under influence of gravity
e 1
GM m 2 rmin
e=eccentricity, h=angular momentum (constant)
1 h2 GM m
E 2
Conservation of orbital energy = constant
2 mrmin rmin
GM m
E Orbital energy in terms of semi-major axis
2a

e 1
2
2
h
m
2
E
m Eccentricity in terms of angular momentum and
GM 2
orbital energy
Conic Section Eccentricity Orbital Energy
Ellipse e<1 E<0
Parabola e=1 E=0
Hyperbola e>1 E>0
Circle e=0 E = -GmM/2r
 SUMMARY COMMENTS

Hyperbolic Parabolic Elliptic

E0 E0 E0
h2
2 2GM e 1
uesc
GM m rmin
2
r
e 1 Circle
e 1
GM m
E
2r
GM
ucirc
r
e 0
3
2a 2
Period
GM
 INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORY: HOHMANN ORBIT
Main idea through example of moving spacecraft from LEO GEO
Average radius of Earth is about 6,378 km
LEO is at 300 km above sea level or r1 = 6,678 km from center of Earth
GEO is at 35,786 km above sea level or r2 = 42,164 km from center of Earth

Step 1: Calculate Vc1 and Vc2 at r1 and r2, respectively

Step 2: Add some DV1 to into elliptical transfer, called GTO

Perpendicular to r1
Impulse applied at perigee of ellipse, spacecraft moving fastest
Spacecraft arrives at apogee moving slowest

Step 3: Apply some DV2 to circularize orbit

If this is not done, spacecraft will stay in elliptical orbit
 WHAT IS ACTUAL SCALE OF ORBITS?

NOT EVEN CLOSE TO SCALE

WHAT IS ACTUAL SCALE OF ORBITS?

GEO

EARTH

LEO, 300 km
WHAT IS ACTUAL SCALE OF ORBITS?

GEO

LEO
EARTH
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
We want to move spacecraft from Vc2
LEO GEO
GEO
Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and
velocity Vc1

GM
Vc1
r1 LEO

Desired GEO orbit has radius r2 r1

and velocity Vc2

At LEO (r1), Vc1 = 7,724 m/s Vc1

At GEO (r2), Vc2 = 3,074 m/s r2

Could accomplish this in many

ways
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
We want to move spacecraft from Vc2
LEO GEO
GEO
Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and
velocity Vc1

GM
Vc1
r LEO

Desired GEO orbit has radius r2 r1

and velocity Vc2

At LEO (r1), Vc1 = 7,724 m/s Vc1

At GEO (r2), Vc2 = 3,074 m/s r2

Could accomplish this in many

ways
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
We want to move spacecraft from Vc2
LEO GEO
GEO
Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and
velocity Vc1

GM
Vc1
r LEO

Desired GEO orbit has radius r2 r1

and velocity Vc2

At LEO (r1), Vc1 = 7,724 m/s Vc1

At GEO (r2), Vc2 = 3,074 m/s r2

Could accomplish this in many

ways
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
We want to move spacecraft from Vc2
LEO GEO
GEO
Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and
velocity Vc1

GM
Vc1
r LEO

Desired GEO orbit has radius r2 r1

and velocity Vc2

At LEO (r1), Vc1 = 7,724 m/s Vc1

At GEO (r2), Vc2 = 3,074 m/s r2

Accomplish this using Hohmann

Transfer Orbit
Special illustrative case
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
Impulsive DV1 is applied to get on Vc2
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
at perigee:
GEO

2 2
DV1
r1 r1 r2 r1
GTO
LEO
GM
r1
Leave LEO (r1) with a total
velocity of V1
Vc1 DV1
r2 V1
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
Impulsive DV1 is applied to get on Vc2
Apogee
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
at perigee:
GEO

2 2
DV1
r1 r1 r2 r1
GTO
LEO
GM
r1
Leave LEO (r1) with a total
velocity of V1
Vc1 DV1
r2 V1
Transfer orbit is elliptical shape
Perigee located at r1
Apogee located at r2

Perigee
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
Arrive at GEO (apogee) with V2 Vc2
DV2 V2
When arriving at GEO, which is at GEO
apogee or elliptical transfer orbit,
must apply some DV2 in order to
circularize:
GTO
2 2
DV2 LEO
r2 r2 r1 r2
r1
GM

This is exactly the DV that should Vc1 DV1

be applied to circularize the orbit r2 V1
at GEO (r2)
Vc2 = DV2 + V2
If this DV is not applied,
spacecraft will continue on dashed
elliptical trajectory
 HOHMANN TRANSFER SUMMARY
Initial LEO orbit has radius r1 and Vc2
velocity Vc1
DV2 V2
GM
Vc1 GEO
r
Desired GEO orbit has radius r2
and velocity Vc2
GTO
Impulsive DV1 is applied to get on
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) LEO
at perigee:
2 2 r1
DV1
r1 r1 r2 r1

Coast to apogee and apply Vc1 DV1

impulsive DV2: r2 V1
2 2
DV2
r2 r2 r1 r2

GM
 SUMMARY
Hohmann Transfer Orbit
Minimum energy trajectory
Least fuel consumption (cheapest)
Tends to be longest
Reference Figure 10.16 in textbook

Oberth Transfer Orbit

Same basic idea: directly launch into transfer orbit
Larger DV at r1
Lower overall DV
Minimum propulsive requirement to arrive in orbit

General Comments
Time does not appear in these expression
Depends on orbital characteristics
No Drag, No maneuvering near planet
Faster trajectories require greater DVtotal
BOEING DELTA IV COMPONENTS

http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/delta/delta4/d4h_demo/book04.html
 OVERVIEW
During LEO GEO transfer, upper stage coasts for several hours
Upper stage must re-start at conclusion of coast phase for insertion

Typical Delta 4 Medium launch sequence to

Delta-4M+(4,2) (Delta-4240)
geosynchronous transfer orbit from Cape
http://www.skyrocket.de/space/ http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0201/28delta4mate/delta4medium.html
 2nd STAGE OVERVIEW

LH2 Tank

LOX Tank

http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0201/28delta4mate/delta4upperstage.html http://www.pratt-whitney.com/prod_space_rl10.asp
OVERVIEW: WHAT CAN HAPPEN INSIDE TANKS?

Stage exposed to solar heating

Propellants (LH2 and LOX) may
thermally stratify
Propellants may boil
Slosh events during maneuvers

http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/delta/delta4/d4h_demo/book14.html
XSS-10 view of Delta II rocket: An Air Force Research Laboratory XSS-10 micro-satellite uses its onboard camera system to view the second stage of the
Boeing Delta II rocket during mission operations Jan. 30. (Photo courtesy of Boeing.), http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/xss.htm
 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
Analytical and computational thermal modeling of cryogenic rocket propellants
Examine effects parametrically

LH2 Tank

LOX Tank
LEO TO GEO USING LOW THRUST