INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON

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 I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere
thanks to our biology teacher Mrs. Jyotsna
Mangaraj for her invaluable guidance, constant
encouragement, constructive comments,
sympathetic attitude and immense motivation,
which has sustained my efforts at all stages of
this project work. Her valuable advice and
suggestions for the corrections, modifications
and improvement did enhance the perfection in
performing my job well. I would like to express
my gratitude to my parents for whole hearted
co-operation and guidance. I am also thankful
for their encouragement and for all the facilities
that they provided for this project work. I
sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by taking
me into their fold for which I shall remain
indebted to them.
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 I hereby declare that the project work
entitled POLLINATION: ITS TYPES
AND DIFFERENT POLLINATING
AGENTS submitted to DAV Public
School Pokhariput, BBSR is a record of
original work done by me under the
guidance of Mrs. Jyotsna Mangaraj.

SIGNATURE OF TEACHER

3 SIGNATURE OF STUDENT
 This is to certify that Pratyasha
Priyadarshini a student of class-XII B
has successfully completed the research
project on the topic POLLINATION:
ITS TYPES AND DIFFERENT
POLLINATING AGENTS under the
guidance of Mrs. Jyotsna Mangaraj
{PGT BIOLOGY}.This project is
completely genuine and does not
involve in plagiarism of any kind. The
references taken in making this project
have been declared at the end of this
project.

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SIGNATURE OF EXTERNAL EXAMINER

SIGNATURE OF INTERNAL EXAM INER

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
 In flowering plants, male & female gametes are
produced in pollen grain & embryo sac
respectively. These gametes are non-motile,
therefore, they have to be brought together for
fertilisation. Pollination is the mechanism to
achieve this objective. The transfer of pollen
grains, shed from the anther to the stigma of a
pistil for fertilisation is called pollination.
Flowering plants have an amazing array of
adaptations to achieve pollination. They make
use of external agents to achieve pollination.
These may be biotic or abiotic agents. The
mechanism of pollination is described in detail
in the following sections.

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 POLLINATION

ON DIFFERENT
ON SAME PLANT PLANT

AUTOGAMY GEITONOMY XENOGAMY

TRANSFER OF TRANSFER OF
TRANSFER OF
POLLEN GRAIN POLLEN FROM
POLLEN GRAIN
ANTHER TO STIGMA
FROM ANTHER TO FROM ANTHER TO
OF DIFFERENT
STIGMA OF SAME STIGMA OF
FLOWER OF SAME
FLOWER DIFFERENT FLOWER
PLANT

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 Self-pollination is an example of autogamy that
occurs in flowering plants. Self-pollination
occurs when the sperm in the pollen from the
stamen of a plant goes to the carpels of that
same plant and fertilizes the egg cell present.
Self-pollination can either be done completely
autogamously or geitonogamously. In the
former, the egg and sperm cells that united
came from the same flower. In the latter, the
sperm and egg cells can come from a different
flower on the same plant. While the latter
method does blur the lines between
autogamous self-fertilization and normal sexual
reproduction, it is still considered autogamous
self-fertilization.

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 Inbreeding result from mating between closely
related individuals.
Inbreeding depression is the decline in fitness and
vigour with decreased heterozygosity.
Inbreeding also reduce the reproductive ability.
Self-pollinated crops show no inbreeding
depression, while cross-pollinated crop show
variable degree of inbreeding depression.

EFFECTS OF INBREEDING -
Generally inbreeding is concerned with a reduction
in vigour and reproductive capacity that is fertility.
1. Reduction in vigour.
2. Increase in homozygosity.
3. Reduction in reproductive ability.
4. Appearance of lethal and sub-lethal alleles.
5. Reduction in yield.
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 Outbreeding devices for cross pollination:
1. Unisexuality or Dioecism: In this, plant either
bears male flowers or female flowers.
2. Dichogamy: Anther and stigma mature at
different times to avoid self pollination.
It is of two types :
Protandry: Maturation of androecium before
gynoecium e.g. Maize.
Protogyny: Maturation of gynoecium before
androecium e.g. Aristolochia
3. Herkogamy: It refers to presence of certain
barriers in flower which prevents self
pollination. e.g. Gynostegium and pollinia in
Asclepiadaceae (Calotropis)
4. Heterostyly: In this, flowers of different
plants of the same species possess different
10 lengths of stamens and styles, thus avoid self
pollination. e.g. Oxalis, Primula.
5. Self incompatibility: It is a phenomenon in
which genetic mechanism of flower prevents
the fusion of gametes of genetically similar
plants. This is also called as self-sterility and
intraspecific incompatibility.
 Geitonogamy is a type of self-pollination.
Geitonogamous pollination is sometimes
distinguished from the fertilizations that can
result from it, geitonogamy. If a plant is self-
incompatible, geitonogamy can reduce seed
production.
In flowering plants, pollen is transferred from
a flower to another flower on the same plant, and
in animal pollinated systems this is accomplished
by a pollinator visiting multiple flowers on the
same plant. Geitonogamy is also possible within
species that are wind-pollinated, and may actually
be a quite common source of self-fertilized seeds
in self-compatible species. It also occurs
in monoecious gymnosperms. Although
geitonogamy is functionally cross-pollination
involving a pollinating agent, genetically it is
similar to autogamy since the pollen grains come
from the same plant.
11 Monoecious plants like maize show geitonogamy.
Geitonogamy is not possible for
strictly dioecious plants.
 Xenogamy (Greek xenos=stranger, gamos=marri
age) is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma of a different plant. This is
the only type of pollination which during
pollination brings genetically different types of
pollen grains to the stigma.
The term xenogamy (along
with geitonogamy and autogamy) was first
suggested by Kerner in 1876. Cross-pollination
involves the transfer of pollen grains from the
flower of one plant to the stigma of the flower
of another plant.

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 ANEMOPHILY WIND

HYDROPHILY WATER

ENTOMOPHILY INSECTS

AGENTS OF
POLLINATION ORNITHOPHILY BIRDS

CHIROPTEROPHILY BATS

MALACOPHILY SNAILS

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OPHIOPHILY SNAKES
 Anemophily or wind pollination is a form
of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind.
Almost all gymnosperms are anemophilous, as are
many plants in the order Poales,
including grasses, sedges and rushes. Other common
anemophilous plants are oaks, sweet
chestnuts, alders and members of the
family Juglandaceae (hickory or walnut family).
Features of the wind-pollination syndrome include a
lack of scent production, a lack of showy floral parts
(resulting in inconspicuous flowers), reduced
production of nectar, and the production of
enormous numbers of pollen grains. This
distinguishes them
from entomophilous and zoophilous species (whose
pollen is spread
by insects and vertebrates respectively).
Anemophilous pollen grains are light and non-sticky,
15 so that they can be transported by air currents. They
are typically 2060 micrometres (0.00080.0024 in)
in diameter, although the pollen grains
of Pinus species can be much larger and much less
dense. Anemophilous plants possess well-
exposed stamens so that the pollens are exposed to
wind currents and also have large and
feathery stigma to easily trap airborne pollen grains.
Pollen from anemophilous plants tends to be smaller and lighter
than pollen from entomophilous ones, with very low nutritional
value to insects. However, insects sometimes gather pollen from
staminate anemophilous flowers at times when higher-
protein pollens from entomophilous flowers are scarce.
Anemophilous pollens may also be inadvertently captured
by bees' electrostatic field. This may explain why, though bees
are not observed to visit ragweed flowers, its pollen is often
found in honey made during the ragweed floral bloom. Other
flowers that are generally anemophilous are observed to be
actively worked by bees, with solitary bees often
visiting grass flowers, and the
larger honeybees and bumblebees frequently gathering pollen
from corn tassels and other grains.
Anemophily is an adaptation that helps to separate the male and
female reproductive systems of a single plant, reducing the
effects of inbreeding. It often accompanies dioecy the presence
of male and female reproductive structures on separate plants.

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 Hydrophily is a fairly uncommon form
of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by the
flow of waters, particularly in rivers and streams.
Hydrophilous species fall into two categories: those
that distribute their pollen to the surface of water,
and those that distribute it beneath the surface.
It is of 2 types-
EPIHYDROPHILY-
Surface pollination is more frequent and appears to be
a transitional phase between wind pollination and
true hydrophily. In these the pollen floats on the
surface and reaches the stigmas of the female flowers
as in Hydrilla, Callitriche, Ruppia, Zostera, Elodea.
In Vallisneria the male flowers become detached and
float on the surface of the water; the anthers are thus
brought in contact with the stigmas of the female
flowers. Surface hydrophily has been observed in
several species of Potamogeton as well as some marine
17 species.
HYPOHYDROPHILY-
Species exhibiting true submerged hydrophily
include Najas, where the pollen grains are heavier than
water, and sinking down are caught by the stigmas of
the extremely simple female flowers, Posidonia
australis and Zostera marina.
 Entomophily or insect pollination is a form
of pollination whereby pollen of plants, especially
but not only of flowering plants, is distributed
by insects. Flowers pollinated by insects
typically advertise themselves with bright colours,
sometimes with conspicuous patterns (honey
guides) leading to rewards of pollen and nectar; they
may also have an attractive scent which in some
cases mimics insect pheromones. Insect pollinators
such as bees have adaptations for their role, such as
lapping or sucking mouthparts to take in nectar, and
in some species also pollen baskets on their hind
legs. This required the co-evolution of insects and
flowering plants in the development of pollination
behavior by the insects and pollination mechanisms
by the flowers, benefiting both groups.
Many plants, including flowering plants such
as grasses, are instead pollinated by other
mechanisms, such as by wind.
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Wind and water pollination require the production of vast
quantities of pollen because of the chancy nature of its
deposition. If they are not to be reliant on the wind or water
(for aquatic species), plants need pollinators to move their
pollen grains from one plant to another. They particularly need
pollinators to consistently choose flowers of the same species,
so they have evolved different lures to encourage specific
pollinators to maintain fidelity to the same species. The
attractions offered are mainly nectar, pollen, fragrances and oils.
The ideal pollinating insect is hairy (so that pollen adheres to
it), and spends time exploring the flower so that it comes into
contact with the reproductive structures.

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 Ornithophily or bird pollination is the pollination of
flowering plants by birds. This co
evolutionary association is derived from insect
pollination (entomophily) and is particularly well
developed in some parts of the world, especially in
the tropics and on some island chains. The
association involves several distinctive plant
adaptations forming a "pollination syndrome". The
plants typically have colourful, often red, flowers
with long tubular structures holding ample nectar
and orientations of the stamen and stigma that
ensure contact with the pollinator. Birds involved in
ornithophily tend to be specialist nectarivores with
brushy tongues, long bills, capable of hovering flight
or are light enough to perch on the flower structures.
Bird pollination is considered as a costly strategy for
plants and it evolves only where there are particular
benefits for the plant. High altitude ecosystems that
lack insect pollinators, those in dry regions or
20 isolated islands tend to favour the evolution of
ornithophily in plants.
Plants adaptations can be grouped into mechanisms that attract
birds, those that exclude insects, protect against nectar theft
and pollination mechanisms in the strict sense. The ovules of
bird flowers also tend to have adaptations that protect them
from damage.
Most bird pollinated flowers are red and have a lot of nectar.
They also tend to be unscented. Flowers with generalized
pollinators tend to have dilute nectar but those that have
specialist pollinators such as hummingbirds or sunbirds tend to
have more concentrated nectar.

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 Bat-pollinated flowers tend to be large and showy,
white or light coloured, open at night and have
strong odours. They are often large and bell-shaped.
Bats drink the nectar, and these plants typically offer
nectar for extended periods of time. Sight, smell,
and echo-location are used to initially find the
flowers, and excellent spatial memory is used to visit
them repeatedly. In fact, bats can identify nectar-
producing flowers using echolocation. In the New
World, bat pollinated flowers often have sulfur-
scented compounds, but this does not carry to other
parts of the world. Bat-pollinated plants have bigger
pollen than their relatives.

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 Pollination by slugs and snails is called malacophily.
Land plants like Chrysanthemum, Colocasia and
water plant like Lemna shows malacophily.

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 Pollination by Snake is known as Ophiophilly.
e.g., Santalum, Michelia, Arisaema.

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 Pollination is the process by
which pollen is transferred to the
female reproductive organs of a plant,
thereby enabling fertilization to take
place. Like all living organisms, seed
plants have a single major purpose: to
pass their genetic information on to
the next generation. The reproductive
unit is the seed, and pollination is an
essential step in the production of
seeds in
all spermatophytes (seed plants).

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 1. GRB NEW ERA, BIOLOGY
2. TRUEMANS BIOLOGY
3. INTERNET
www.wikipedia.com
www.google.com
www.yahooanswers.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination
www.embibe.com

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