Engineer fraternity can help for a

SAFER BUILT ENVIRONMENT

which can reduce the
MAXIMUM VULNERABILITY
in Tripura
Earthquake Disaster
 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
INCREASING NUMBER OF DISASTERS

Population Growth and Urban Development

Development Practices
Climatic changes
Effect of Environmental degradation
Why is Disaster Mitigation important to
us

57% of the land area in India is prone to

Earthquakes.
12% to Floods.
8% to Cyclones.
70% of the cultivable land is prone to drought.
85% of the land area is vulnerable to number of
natural hazards.
22 states are prone to multi hazards.
 Joint failures

5 28th March, 2015

 Joint failure?

Lateral Deflection, mm
Lateral Load

Drift at tensile failure

6 28th March, 2015
Drift at lateral failure
Priestley, 1994 Drift at axial failure
Observed damage at the ground floor of a confined masonry building in the 1999
El Quindio, Colombia earthquake (note that the tie-columns around the openings
are missing)
 Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction
Flow failures of structures - caused by loss of strength
of underlying soil

Nishinomia Bridge 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan

 Building Layout

15 28th March, 2015

 Building plan aspect ratio

16 28th March, 2015

 Position of openings in a building

17 28th March, 2015

DUCTILE DETAILING OF
REINFORCEMENT
Basic Consideration in the design of
Earthquake Resistant Structures as
per IS-1893
It is not intended in this standard to lay down
regulations so that no structure shall suffer any
damage during earthquake of all magnitudes.
It has been endeavored to ensure that, as far as
possible, structures are able to respond, without
structural damage to shocks of moderate intensities
and without total collapse to shocks of heavy
intensities.
IS-1893 is intended for normal structures, it has to
be emphasized that in the case of special
structures detailed investigation should be
undertaken.
As per the Indian Seismic Code IS:1893 (Part 1) - 2002,
Design Base Shear VB

where Z is the Seismic Zone Factor; I is the Importance Factor, R the

Response Reduction Factor, and Sa/ g is the Average response
Acceleration coefficient
Basic strategy of earthquake design: Calculate maximum
elastic forces and reduce by a factor to obtain design forces.
 For ductile detailing of reinforcement
1. IS-13920 provides guidelines.
2. The provisions make the structure capable
of undergoing extensive inelastic
deformations and dissipating seismic
energy in a stable manner.
Provisions are included for detailing of lap
splices and for the calculation of design shear
force. For members subjected to axial load and
flexure the dimensional constraints have been
imposed on the structure.
 Lap Splices in Column
Lap slices shall be provided only in the
central half of the member length, it
should be proportioned as a tension
splice.
Hoops shall be provided over the entire
splice length at spacing not exceeding 100
mm c/c.
Not more than 50% of the bar shall be
spliced at one section.
 Splices in Beam
Reinforcement
The longitudinal bars shall be spliced, only if hoops are
provided over the entire splice length, at a spacing not
exceeding 150 mm.
The lap length shall not be less than the development
length in tension.
Lap splices shall not be provided
(a) within a joint
(b) within a distance of 2d from the joint space
(c) within a quarter length of the member where flexural
yielding may generally occur during earthquake.
Not more than 50% bar shall be spliced at one section.
 Joint Details - Interior

hcol 20db
37 28th March, 2015

ACI 352
 Joint Details - Corner
ldh

38 28th March, 2015

ACI 352
 Code-conforming joints

42 28th March, 2015

 Joints not conforming
Codes

43
 Older-type beam-column
connections

44 28th March, 2015

 Earthquake Resistant Confined Masonry
Construction

Confined masonry construction with the walls built using

hollow clay tiles
BUILDING CRACKS
 REASONS OF CRACKS
IN BUILDING
1. Chemical reaction in construction
materials.
2. Climatic condition of the nature.
3. Foundation movement & settling of
building.
4. Environmental stresses.
5. Bad quality materials.
6. Wrong method of construction.
 REPAIR CRACKS
1. Repair cracks on plaster surface.
2. Repair cracks on RCC surface.
3. Repair cracks on masonry walls.
4. Repair cracks in floor.
 HOW TO PREVENT CRACKS
IN BUILDING
1. Drainage arrangement should be made
around the building to minimize water
entry in the foundation.
2. Avoid construction of wall on filled up
soil.
3. Avoid trees grow too close to building &
compound walls.
 How To Remove
Efflorescence
What efflorescence is, how to
remove it, and how to stop it.
What is efflorescence?
Efflorescence is a
deposit of soluble
salts, usually white
in color, which can
appear on the
surface of masonry
or concrete.
How is efflorescence formed?
Three circumstances must take place for
efflorescence to form (without all three,
efflorescence can not form). The circumstances are
as follows:

1. Soluble salts must be present in the concrete or

masonry.
2. Moisture must be present (moisture can be present in
the air, on the surface, or in the concrete) to pick up
the soluble salts and transfer them to the surface of
the concrete or masonry.
3. Evaporation or hydrostatic pressure must cause the
solution (salt and water) to move to the surface.
 Efflorescence Removal
First step in removing efflorescence is identification of
salts. If the salts are water soluble, the best removal
method is with dry brush. Rinsing with water or natural
weathering process may also be effective.
If the efflorescence is in small patches or limited areas,
hand washing with a mild detergent and a stiff bristle
brush will often prove sufficient.
Traditional method of cleaning is sand blasting (which
generally should not be recommended because after
sand blasting the mortar becomes porous which contains
voids for infiltration and may even reveal cracks in the
mortar.
 Efflorescence Removal contd.
It is difficult to totally control any one of these
conditions, but it is relatively simple to reduce the effect
each one has towards efflorescence.
Special chemical cleansers can be used according to
manufacturers direction/ use manual. Generally, through
presoaking and post washing with clean portable water
is required. Presoaking is done to saturate the wall,
reducing its natural porous tendencies and limiting the
depth of penetration of the cleaning solution. After the
cleaning solution has been used, the wall must be
thoroughly washed with clean water to remove any of
the cleaning chemicals. This is very important since most
cleaning agents are acidic in nature and cannot be
permitted to remain in the wall where they will continue
to react with and erode the masonry salt.
 How to control Efflorescence
Reduce all soluble alkali surface.
Use good details to prevent water from entering
masonry.
Use good construction practices to eliminate
migratory paths for moisture.
DISTRESS OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURES & THEIR
REPAIR TECHNIQUES
 INTRODUCTION
If a building has given about 25v to 30 years of service
without much maintenance or repair then it is reasonable
to expect that it would need some repair sooner or later.
CATEGORIES OF REASONS DISTRESS OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
1. WEATHERING
2. AGEING
3. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
4. INADEQUATE MAINTENANCE
5. POOR DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION QUALITY
6. CHANGE OF LOADING PATTERN OR NON
CONVENTIONAL LOADING ON STRUCTURE
7. WATER LEAKAGE LEADING TO CORROSION OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURE
PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE STRUCTURE DEPENDS UPON:
1. QUALITY OF CONCRETE
2. AMBIENT CONDITIONS

EXPECTED SERVICE LIFE OF STRUCTURES

Life span of RCC is generally taken as 100 years

EXPECTED CONVENTION ABOUT DESIGN LIFE SPAN

Monumental structure like temple ,mosque or church is
500 to 1000 yrs.
Steel bridges ,steel buildings or similar structures is 100 to
150 yrs.
Concrete bridges or hign rise buildings or stone bridges is
100 yrs.
A house or general building is 60 to 80 yrs.
Highways :concrete pavement for about 30 to 35 yrs and
bituminous pavements for about 8 to 10 yrs.
COMMON FAILURE MODES OF R.C.C.
Cracks, potholes and erosion of the top layer
of concrete, rusting of reinforcement,
splitting etc.
Cracking is the most common phenomenon
in concrete structures.
Cracking of concrete section cannot be
prevented but size and location of the cracks
can be limited & controlled by reinforcement,
placement of control joint, and better
concreting and curing
 CAUSES OF EARLY DETERIORATION
OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Poor workmanship : untrained man power and bad

quality of construction
Inadequate cover to reinforcement.
Loosely fitted joints.

Excessive water cement ratio

The IS: 456:2000 has laid down upper limits for water
cement ratio, normally it need about 15 to 18 lts. Of
water per 50kg bag of cement.
With this quantity of water concrete will be stiff and
uncompact able so we mix additional water for
workability. This extra water after evaporation leaves
Inadequate concrete cover
Bars are not bent accurately or may not be
effectively fixed to ensure that specified gap is
left between bars and form work while often
not only bars touch formwork but also the
binding wires loose ends and the steel bars
are seen at the surface of concrete.
In that case, they are prone to moisture.
Honey comb or Un vibrated concrete
Porous concrete is a major source of
weakness in concrete.
Un-compacted concrete results in honey
combing which gives low compressive
Cold joints or bad construction joints
A cold joint is a joint where fresh concrete is
placed against a previous un-compacted
concrete which has already hardened due to
lapses of time that is more than concrete
setting time.
Inadequate reinforcement
Many a contractor does not put enough
reinforcement in concrete structural member
s and hence it fails under tension.
Wrong placing of reinforcement
Many times contractors do not know the
Inadequate cement quantity
IS: 456:2000 has laid down the minimum
quantity in concrete.
Minimum quantity of cement is needed not
only to coat the fine and coarse aggregate
particles but also to fill the voids between the
aggregate particles and to provide a thicker fill
of cement grout for easy workability.
Congested reinforcement bars
Too many steel bars in narrow and slender
RCC columns, walls or beams results in NO
room for having cover in concrete nor for
inserting a needle vibrator to ensure full
Initially rust steel bars
Alkali aggregate reactivity
Under most conditions the reaction causes
excessive expansion and cracking of concrete
after few months or year.
Effect of weather and water leakage
Weather causes structure to delay.
Prolong exposure to polluted environ,ent and
acid rain can give weathered concrete anfd
corrode metal ties and fastenings.
Porous cover blocks
Having incorrect mix proportions and water
cement ratio.
These are usually fixed to the steel bars at
about one meter centers and if they are
porous they become the starting source of
decay as they permit the ingress of moisture.
EFFECTS OF CRACKING ON LIFE
OR DURABILIY OF STRUCTURE

Understanding of cracks in concrete will help us to

avpoid failures of concrete on one hand, avoidable
worries and expenditure on other hand .
Reduce loading capacity of structure
Progressive failure
Loss of appearance
Leakages
Apprehension of failure in mind
Controlling cracks
Better concrete mix design
Friendly environment condition at the time of
concreting at site.
Have dense concrete
Use low heat of pozzolanic cement in mass
concreting.
 IDENTIFICATION OF
DISTRESSED LOCATIONS ON
STRUCTURES
PRELIMINARY INSPECTION
Carry out a preliminary inspection possibly with some testing
in order to get characterize the nature of problem and to
plan the detailed investigations.
Detailed inspection
Checking the strength of concrete
Chemical analysis on concrete
Corrosion test
Conclusion from investigation
In majority of cases ,the cause of damage can be tracked to
the following singly or in combination:
Low cover to steel
Permeable concrete
REPAIR
Repair refers to modification of structure,
damaged in its appearance or serviceability,
to restore, partly or wholly, the pre-
existing characteristics of serviceability,
load-bearing capacity and if necessary, to
improve its durability.
Repair techniques are used to restore the
structural integrity and shape of a concrete
element and generally include removal of
damaged concrete and replacement of new
concrete.
GENERAL REPAIR PROCEDURE
Surface preparation and protection of reinforcement
Chipping of defective or deteriorated concrete
should be done till all defective concrete is
removed.
During repairs structural load carrying members
must be supported.
Remove all rust from steel bars if it is reinforced
member. In concrete rust is like cancer.
The old concrete of masonry surface should be
made rough to give proper mechanical bond.
Wash and clean the entire surface before taking up
repairs
Bonding material / epoxy should be applied
between old and new concrete.
Spraying of water at regular intervals on inclined or
MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR
CRACK REPAIR

Repair materials can be of following types:

Cement bound
Polymer cement bound
Resin hardener bound(epoxy)
Following materials are generally used in crack
repair:
1. Low viscosity epoxy materials
2. Epoxy modified mortar
3. Polyurethane based coating over epoxy mortar
4. Elastomeric concrete
5. Fiber reinforced concrete
Low viscosity epoxy material
Designed for grouting gaps of low width of about 0.5
to 10mm. Epoxy compound like RESICRETE of SWC or
CONVEXTRA EP10 of FORSROC which is normally
supplied as two component product consisting of
base and hardener that is filler and polymer can be
used.
Epoxy modified mortar
Epoxy mortar is a common material used for repair of
concrete surfaces in general. It cannot be used in
open surfaces as it is non UV resistant
Polyurethane based coating over epoxy mortar
As epoxy mortars are non UV resistors ,but still have
good strength so they can be used with a coating of
this material.
Elastomeric concrete
Fiber reinforced concrete
It is a concrete with small sized aggregates, cement
sand mortar and some type of hair .Various types of
hair can be:
Steel fibers
Carbon fibers
Glass fibers
Polypropylene fibers
Generally polypropylene fiber is used.

Ferro cement
Term Ferro cement is applied to a mixture of Portland
cement and sand reinforced with layers of woven or
expanded steel mesh and closely spaced small
diameter steel rods. Construction made with this is
more resistant to earthquakes.
 SOME SPECIFIC REPAIR
TECHNIQUE FOR CONCRETE
SURFACE
1. Cracking of concrete surface up to certain depth:
a) Cracks up to depth of 0 to 20 mm category A
b) Cracks between depth of 20 to 50-category B
c) Cracks to depth of more than 50mm-category C
1. Weather effects on concrete or rusting of
reinforcement category D
2. Blowholes and streak marks on concrete-category E
3. Honeycombing in concrete category F
4. Holes in concrete or potholes or holes in road
category G
Repair methods-anyone of the above materials can be
used with following described methods
Application by hand
 ASSESMENT OF QUALITY OF
STRUCTURE SOON AFTER ITS
CONSTRUCTION
As the repair of structural element of building is
over, it is desirable hat soundness of structure is
assed with the help of non-destructive testing
technique. Some NDTs which are available are:
Pulse velocity measurement method (PVM)
Cover meter
Rebound hammer or similar methods
Core cutting and testing of critical spots
Through these methods the strength of concrete,
depth of cover, cracks, voids, if any can be found.
 REQUIREMENT FOR TRAINING FOR
CONCRETE REPAIR AND CONCRETE
WORKERS
To achieve good quality of work it is necessary to
have skilled workers at site.
Like masons know the importance of water, right
placement of reinforcement, mixing ingredients
etc. Training should look that construction workers
are trained for correct process and quality
procedure with practical sessions and hands on
work.
Regulations in Tripura Building Rules-
2004
Ground coverage in respect of buildings (Rule-47).
Permissible height of buildings vs width of means of
access (Rule 48).
Open space for buildings (front open space, rear open
space and side spaces (Rule-49 and Rule-51).
Car parking (Rule-50).
Fire protection (Rule-72).
Requirements regarding staircase (Rule-75).
Structural design (Rule-81).
Facilities to be provided for physically challenged
persons (Rule-107).
 During Planning
Engineers/Architects must consider :-

1. Location of structure and its impact.

2. Type of structure and its suitability.

3. Shape of Structure in regards to earthquake failures.

4. Soil bearing capacity and settlement to adopt most

appropriate foundation system

78 28th March, 2015

 Protection of areas from
Earthquakes
Where there are no dangers of soil liquefaction or settlements or
landslides, all building structures should be designed using IS code
and National Building Code.

Soil subjected to liquefaction potential under earthquake shaking

can be improved by compaction to desired relative densities, so as
to prevent the possibility of liquefaction.

Buildings and structures may be founded on deep bearing piles

going to non-liquefaction dense layers.

Steep slopes can be more stable by terracing and construction of

retaining walls and breast walls, and by ensuring good drainage of
water so that the saturation of hill slope is avoided.
 Precautions for Composite Construction :-

- Load bearing wall with Corner Reinforcement but

not with RCC Column.

- Load bearing wall Shall not be mix with RCC.

- The Mechanics of both is different and hence

shall not be clubbed together in High seismic
Zone.

80 28th March, 2015

Provisions in Building Regulations/
Byelaws for Structural safety
Part VI National Building Code, India
provides Guidelines for structural design.

For General Structural Safety

1) IS: 456: 2000 Code of Practice for Plain and

Reinforced Concrete.

2) IS:800-1984 Code of Practice for General

Construction in Steel.

-contd.
3) IS: 801-1975 Code of Practice for Use of Formal Light
Gauge Steel Structural Members in General Building
Construction.

4) IS: 875 (Part 2): 1987 Design loads (other than

earthquake) for buildings and structures Part 2 Imposed
Loads.

5) IS: 875 (Part 3): 1987 Design loads (other than

earthquake) for buildings and structures Part 3 Wind
Loads.

6) IS: 875 (Part 4): 1987 Design loads (other than

earthquake) for buildings and structures Part 4 Snow
Loads.
7) IS: 875 (Part 5): 1987 Design loads (other than
earthquake) for buildings and structures Part 5 special
loads and load combination.

8) IS: 883:1966 Code of Practice for Design of Structural

Timber in Building.

9) IS:1904:1987 Code of Practice for structural safety of

Buildings: Foundation.

10) IS:1905:1987 Code of Practice for structural safety of

Buildings: Masonry Walls.

11) IS:2911 (Part 1 to 4): Code of Practice for Design and

Construction of Pile Foundation.
 For Earthquake Protection
12) IS: 1893-2002 Criteria for Earthquake Resistant
Design.

13) IS: 13920-1993 Ductile Detailing of RCC structures.

14) IS:4326-1993 Earthquake Resistant Design and

Construction of Buildings- Code of Practice (Second
Revision).

15) IS:13828-1993 Improving Earthquake Resistance of Low

Strength Masonry Buildings-Guidelines.

16) IS:13827-1993 Improving Earthquake Resistance of

Earthen Buildings- Guidelines.

17) IS:13935-1993 Repair and Seismic Strengthening of

The State is committed to fulfill
its vision to make

Tripura a Disaster
Resilient State

85
 Thank you

87