INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES

Electrical Drives

Drives are systems employed for motion control

Require prime movers

Drives that employ electric motors as

prime movers are known as Electrical Drives
 Electrical Drives

About 50% of electrical energy used for drives

Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed

75% - constant speed, 25% variable speed (expanding)

Drives used for the control of electric motors speed.

AC drive used for the controlling of AC motors speed while DC drives
used for DC motors.
AC drive is also called Variable Frequency Drive.
 VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVE (VFD)

A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of

an AC motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the
motor.

Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD),

variable-speed drives (VSD), AC drives, adjustable-speed drives (ASD), micro-
drives or inverter drives.

They operate by varying the frequency of the AC voltage supplied to the motor
using solid state electronic devices.
Modern electric drives
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES:

a. Flexible control characteristic This is particularly true when

power electronic converters are employed where the dynamic
and steady state characteristics of the motor can be controlled
by controlling the applied voltage or current.

b. Available in wide range of speed, torque and power

c. High efficiency, lower noise, low maintenance requirements and

cleaner operation

d. Electric energy is easy to be transported.

 Components in electric drives
Motors

Motors obtain power from electrical sources. They convert energy from
electrical to mechanical therefore can be regarded as energy converters.
In braking mode, the flow of power is reversed

There are several types of motors used in electric drives choice of type
used depends on applications, cost, environmental factors and also the
type of sources available.

Broadly, they can be classified as either DC or AC motors:

DC motors (wound or permanent magnet)

AC motors:
Induction motors squirrel cage, wound rotor
Synchronous motors wound field, permanent magnet
Brushless DC motor require power electronic converters
Stepper motors require power electronic converters
Power processor or power modulator:

Since the electrical sources are normally uncontrollable, it is

therefore necessary to be able to control the flow of power to the
motor this is achieved using power processor or power
modulator.
With controllable sources, the motor can be reversed, brake or
can be operated with variable speed. Conventional methods used,
for example, variable impedance or relays, to shape the voltage or
current that is supplied to the motor these methods however are
inflexible and inefficient.
Modern electric drives normally used power electronic converters
to shape the desired voltage or current supplied to the motor.
In other words, the characteristic the characteristic of the motors
can be changed at will. Power electronic converters have several
advantages over classical methods of power conversion such as:
Advantages over classical methods of power conversion such as:

1.More efficient since ideally no losses occur in power electronic

converters

2.Flexible voltage and current can be shaped by simply

controlling switching functions of the power converter

3.Compact smaller, compact and higher ratings solidstate

power electronic devices are continuously being developed the
prices are getting cheaper.
 Converters

Converters are used to convert and possibly regulate (i.e. using

closed-loop control) the available sources to suit the load i.e.
motors. These converters are efficient because the switches
operate in either cut-off or saturation modes
AC-DC Converters or Rectifiers
AC-DC Converters or Rectifiers

It is usually an AC motor driving a DC

generator with modifications to increase
the power gain available.
AC Voltage Controller
DC DC Converter (Chopper)
Control Unit:

The complexity of the control unit depends on the desired drive

performance and the type of motors used.
A controller can be as simple as few op-amps and/or a few digital
ICs, or it can be as complex as the combinations of several ASICs
and digital signal processors (DSPs). The types of the main
controllers can be:
1. analog - which is noisy, inflexible. However analog circuit
ideally has infinite bandwidth.
2. digital immune to noise, configurable. The bandwidth is
obviously smaller than the analog controllers depends on
sampling frequency
3. DSP/microprocessor flexible, lower bandwidth compared to
above. DSPs perform faster operation than microprocessors
(multiplication in single cycle).With DSP/microprocessor
, complex estimations and observers can be easily implemented.
Source

Electrical sources or power supplies provide the energy to the

electrical motors.

For high efficiency operation, the power obtained from the

electrical sources need to be regulated using power electronic
converters.

Power sources can be of AC or DC in nature and normally are

uncontrollable, i.e. their magnitudes or frequencies are fixed or
depend on the sources of energy such as solar or wind.

AC source can be either three-phase or single-phase; 3-phase

sources are normally for high power applications
Factors that affect the selection of different configuration of
electrical drive system such as:

a) Torque and speed profile - determine the ratings of converters

and the quadrant of operation required.

b) Capital and running cost Drive systems will vary in terms of

start-up cost and running cost, e.g. maintenance.

c) Space and weight restrictions

d) Environment and location

Comparison between DC and AC drives

Motors:
1. DC require maintenance, heavy, expensive, speed limited by
mechanical construction

2. AC less maintenance, light, cheaper, robust, high speed (esp.

squirrelcage type
Control unit:

1. DC drives: Simple control decoupling torque and flux by

mechanical commutator the controller can be implemented
using simple analog circuit even for high performance torque
control cheaper.

2. AC drives, the types of controllers to be used depend on the

required drive performance obviously, cost increases with
performance. Scalar control drives technique does not require fast
processor/DSP whereas in FOC or DTC drives, DSPs or fast
processors are normally employed.
 Performance:

1.In DC motors, flux and torque components are always

perpendicular to one another thanks to the mechanical
commutator and brushes. The torque is controlled via the
armature current while maintaining the field component constant.
Fast torque and decouple control between flux and torque
components can be achieved easily.
In AC machines, in particular the induction machines, magnetic coupling
between phases and between stator and rotor windings makes the modeling
and torque control difficult and complex.

Control of the steady state operating conditions is accomplished by controlling

the magnitude and the frequency of the applied voltage; which is known as the
scalar control technique. This is satisfactory in some applications.

The transient states or the dynamics of the machine can only be controlled by
applying the vector control technique whereby the decoupling between the
torque and flux components is achieved through frame transformations.

Implementation of this control technique is complex thus requires fast

processors such as Digital Signal Processors (DSPs).
Control unit
Complexity depends on performance requirement
analog- noisy, inflexible, ideally has infinite bandwidth.
digital immune to noise, configurable, bandwidth is smaller than
the analog controllers
DSP/microprocessor flexible, lower bandwidth - DSPs perform
faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in single
cycle), can perform complex estimations
Electrical isolation between control circuit and power circuit is
needed:
Malfunction in power circuit may damage control circuit
Safety for the operator
Avoid conduction of harmonic to control circuit
Sensors
Sensors (voltage, current, speed or torque) is normally required
for closed-loop operation or protection
Electrical isolation between sensors and control circuit is needed
The term sensor less drives is normally referred to the drive
system where the speed is estimated rather than measured.
Overview of AC and DC drives

DC motors: Regular maintenance, heavy, expensive, speed limit

Easy control, decouple control of torque and flux

AC motors: Less maintenance, light, less expensive, high speed

Coupling between torque and flux variable
spatial angle between rotor and stator flux
 Load
Motor
Power modulator
Control unit
Source
Overview of AC and DC drives

Before semiconductor devices were introduced (<1950)

AC motors for fixed speed applications
DC motors for variable speed applications

After semiconductor devices were introduced (1950s)

Variable frequency sources available AC motors in variable
speed applications
Coupling between flux and torque control
Application limited to medium performance applications
fans, blowers, compressors scalar control

High performance applications dominated by DC motors

tractions, elevators, servos, etc
Overview of AC and DC drives
After semiconductor devices were introduced (1950s)
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Overview of AC and DC drives

After vector control drives were introduced (1980s)

AC motors used in high performance applications elevators,
tractions, servos
AC motors favorable than DC motors however control is
complex hence expensive

Cost of microprocessor/semiconductors decreasing predicted

30 years ago AC motors would take over DC motors
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Classification of IM drives (Buja, Kamierkowski, Direct torque control of PWM inverter-fed AC motors - a survey,
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2004.
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

v

x Newtons law

Fm dMv
M Fm Ff
Ff dt

Linear motion, constant M

dv d2 x
Fm Ff M M 2 Ma
dt dt

First order differential equation for speed

Second order differential equation for displacement
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

Rotational motion

- Normally is the case for electrical drives

Tl
dJm
Te Tl
Te , m dt
J

With constant J,

dm d 2
Te Tl J J 2
dt dt

First order differential equation for angular frequency (or velocity)

Second order differential equation for angle (or position)
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

 Modulates the flow of power from the
source to the motor in such a manner that the
motor will modulate the speedtorque
characteristics required by the load.
During transient operation , such as starting ,
braking and speed reversal , it restricts source
and motor currents within permissible values.
Converts electrical energy of the source in the
form of suitable to the motor.-converter
Select the mode of operation of the motor (i.e)
Motoring or Braking.
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

For constant J, dm
Te Tl J
dt
dm
J Torque dynamic present during speed transient
dt

dm Angular acceleration
dt

Larger net torque and smaller J gives faster acceleration

200

100
speed (rad/s)

-100

-200
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25

20

15
torque (Nm)

10

0
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

dm
Te Tl J
dt
dm dm
m Te m Tl m J pD pL m J
dt dt

Driving
power
Change
Load in KE
power

A step change in speed requires an infinite driving

power
Therefore is a continuous variable
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

dm
Te Tl J
dt
dm dm
m Te m Tl m J pD pL m J
dt dt

Integrating the equation with time and setting the initial speed (0) =
0, we obtain the following:

t t t
dw m
wD = pD d t = pL d t + wm J dt
dt
0 0 0
w
wD = wL + J w m dw m
0

1
wD = wL + Jw m2
2
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

A drive system that require fast acceleration must have

large motor torque capability

small overall moment of inertia

As the motor speed increases, the kinetic energy also increases.

During deceleration, the dynamic torque changes its sign and thus
helps motor to maintain the speed. This energy is extracted from the
stored kinetic energy:
J is purposely increased to do this job !
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

Combination of rotational and translational motions

Fl Fe
Te,

r M r
Tl
v

dv
Fe Fl M Te = r(Fe), Tl = r(Fl), v =r
dt

d
Te Tl r 2M
dt

r2M - Equivalent moment inertia of the

linearly moving mass
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics effect of gearing

Motors designed for high speed are smaller in size and volume

Low speed applications use gear to utilize high speed motors

m m1
Motor Load 1, n1
Te Tl1
J2

m2
n2 Load 2,
J1 Tl2
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics effect of gearing

m m1
Motor Load 1, n1
Te Tl1
J2
m2
n2 Load 2,
J1
Tl2

m
J equ J1 a 22 J 2
Motor Equivalent
Te Load , Tlequ
Tlequ = Tl1 + a2Tl2

Jequ
a2 = n1/n2=2/1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Torque-speed quadrant of operation

Quadrant of operation is

1
T -ve

2
T +ve
+ve +ve defined by the speed and
Pm -ve Pm +ve torque of the motor
Most rotating electrical
machines can operate in 4
T quadrants
Not all converters can

3 4 operate in 4 quadrants
T -ve T +ve
-ve -ve
Pm +ve Pm -ve
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Torque-speed quadrant of operation

m Te
m
Te Quadrant of operation is
defined by the speed and
torque of the motor
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1 Most rotating electrical
Forward braking Forward motoring machines can operate in 4
Te T quadrants
Te Not all converters can
m operate in 4 quadrants
m

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
Reverse motoring Reverse braking
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Motor steady state torque-speed characteristic (natural

characteristic)
SPEED

Synchronous mch

Induction mch

Separately / shunt DC mch

Series DC

TORQUE

By using power electronic converters, the motor characteristic

can be change at will
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Load steady state torque-speed characteristic

Frictional torque (passive load) Exist in all motor-load drive
SPEED
T~ C system simultaneously
T~ 2
In most cases, only one or two
T~ are dominating

Exists when there is motion

TORQUE

Coulomb friction
Viscous friction

Friction due to turbulent flow

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Load steady state torque-speed characteristic

Constant torque, e.g. gravitational torque (active load)

SPEED Gravitational torque

Vehicle drive

Te
TORQUE

TL

gM

FL

TL = rFL = r g M sin
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Load steady state torque-speed characteristic

Hoist drive

Speed

Torque

Gravitational torque
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Load and motor steady state torque

At constant speed, Te= Tl

Steady state speed is at point of intersection between Te and Tl of the
steady state torque characteristics

Torque Te Tl

Steady state
speed

r3 r1r r2 Speed
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Torque and speed profile

speed Speed profile

(rad/s)
100

10 25 45 60 t (ms)

The system is described by: Te Tload = J(d/dt) + B

J = 0.01 kg-m2, B = 0.01 Nm/rads-1 and Tload = 5 Nm.

What is the torque profile (torque needed to be produced) ?

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Torque and speed profile

speed
(rad/s)

d
100

Te J B Tl
dt
10 25 45 60 t (ms)

0 < t <10 ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(0) + 5 Nm = 5 Nm

10ms < t <25 ms Te = 0.01(100/0.015) +0.01(-66.67 + 6666.67t) + 5

= (71 + 66.67t) Nm

25ms < t< 45ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(100) + 5 = 6 Nm

45ms < t < 60ms Te = 0.01(-100/0.015) + 0.01(400 -6666.67t) + 5

= -57.67 66.67t
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Torque and speed profile

speed
(rad/s)
100
Speed profile

10 25 45 60 t (ms)
Torque
(Nm)

72.67
torque profile
71.67

6
5
10 25 45 60 t (ms)

-60.67
-61.67
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Torque and speed profile

Torque
(Nm)

70 J = 0.001 kg-m2, B = 0.1 Nm/rads-1

and Tload = 5 Nm.

10 25 45 60 t (ms)

-65

For the same system and with the motor torque profile
given above, what would be the speed profile?
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Ratings of converters and motors

Torque

Transient Power limit for

torque limit transient torque

Continuous
torque limit Power limit for
continuous torque

Maximum
speed limit

Speed
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations

Unavoidable power losses causes temperature increase

Insulation used in the windings are classified based on the
temperature it can withstand.

Motors must be operated within the allowable maximum temperature

Sources of power losses (hence temperature increase):

- Conductor heat losses (i2R)
- Core losses hysteresis and eddy current
- Friction losses bearings, brush windage
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations

Electrical machines can be overloaded as long their temperature

does not exceed the temperature limit

Accurate prediction of temperature distribution in machines is

complex hetrogeneous materials, complex geometrical shapes

Simplified assuming machine as homogeneous body

Ambient temperature, To

p1 p2
Thermal capacity, C (Ws/oC)
Surface A, (m2) Emitted heat power
Input heat power Surface temperature, T (oC)
(losses) (convection)
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations
Power balance:
dT
C p1 p 2
dt

Heat transfer by convection:

p 2 A(T To ) , where is the coefficient of heat transfer

Which gives:
dT A p
T 1
dt C C

With T(0) = 0 and p1 = ph = constant ,

T
ph
A

1 e t / , where
C
A
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations
ph
T A T
ph
A

1 e t /
Heating transient

t

T
T T(0) e t /
T ( 0)
Cooling transient

t
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations

The duration of overloading depends on the modes of operation:

Continuous duty
Load torque is constant over extended
Continuous duty period multiple
Short time intermittent duty
Steady state temperature reached
Periodic intermittent duty
Nominal output power chosen equals or exceeds continuous load
p1n
Losses due to continuous load
T A

p1n

t
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations

Short time intermittent duty

Operation considerably less than time constant,
Motor allowed to cool before next cycle
Motor can be overloaded until maximum temperature reached
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations
Short time intermittent duty p1s
p1

p1n

T p 1s
A

p1n
A
Tmax

t
t1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations
Short time intermittent duty
pp11nn p1ps 1s1 1eet1 / t1 /
T A A
p1s 1
t1 /

p1n 1 e t1
T
p1s
A

1 e t /
p1n
A
Tmax

t
t1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations

Periodic intermittent duty

Load cycles are repeated periodically

Motors are not allowed to completely cooled

Fluctuations in temperature until steady state temperature is reached

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations

Periodic intermittent duty

p1
heating coolling
heating coolling
heating coolling

t
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations

Periodic intermittent duty

Example of a simple case p1 rectangular periodic pattern

pn = 100kW, nominal power

M = 800kg
= 0.92, nominal efficiency
T= 50oC, steady state temperature rise due to pn

1 p1 9000
p1 pn 1 9kW Also, A 180 W / o C
T 50

If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat cFE=0.48 kWs/kgoC,

thermal capacity C is given by

C = cFE M = 0.48 (800) = 384 kWs/oC

Finally , thermal time constant = 384000/180 = 35 minutes

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Thermal considerations

Periodic intermittent duty

Example of a simple case p1 rectangular periodic pattern

For a duty cycle of 30% (period of 20 mins), heat losses of twice the nominal,

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
4
x 10