2-4 MODELING IN STATE SPACE

Modern Control Theory: The modern trend in engineering systems is

toward greater complexity, due mainly to the requirements of complex
tasks and good accuracy. Complex systems may have multiple inputs
and multiple outputs and may be time varying. Because of the
necessity of meeting increasingly stringent requirements on the
performance of control systems, the increase in system complexity, and
easy access to large scale computers, modern control theory, which is a
new approach to the analysis and design of complex control systems,
has been developed since around 1960.This new approach is based on
the concept of state.

Teora de control moderna: La tendencia moderna en los sistemas de ingeniera es hacia una mayor
complejidad, debido sobre todo a que se requieren tareas ms complejas y buena precisin. Los sistemas
complejos pueden tener mltiples entradas y mltiples salidas y pueden ser variantes en el tiempo. Debido a
la necesidad de cumplir requisitos cada vez ms exigentes en el comportamiento de los sistemas de control,
el aumento en la complejidad del sistema y el fcil acceso a las computadoras a gran escala, la teora
moderna de control, que es una nueva aproximacin al anlisis y diseo de los sistemas de control complejo,
se ha desarrollado desde 1960. Esta nueva aproximacin se basa en el concepto de estado.
 Modern Control Theory Versus Conventional Control Theory:
Modern control theory is contrasted with conventional control theory in
that the former is applicable to multiple-input, multiple-output systems,
which may be linear or nonlinear, time invariant or time varying, while
the latter is applicable only to linear time-invariant single-input, single-
output systems. Also, modern control theory is essentially time-domain
approach and frequency domain approach (in certain cases such as H-
infinity control),while conventional control theory is a complex
frequency-domain approach.

Teora de control moderna frente a teora de control convencional: La tendencia de control

moderna contrasta con la teora de control convencional en que su formulacin es aplicable a
sistemas de mltiples-entradas, mltiples-salidas, que pueden ser lineales o no lineales, invariables
en el tiempo o variables en el tiempo, mientras que la teora convencional slo es aplicable a sistemas
de una entrada-una salida invariantes en el tiempo. Adems, la teora de control moderna es
esencialmente una aproximacin en el dominio temporal, mientras que la teora de control
convencional es una aproximacin en el dominio de la frecuencia compleja.
 BEFORE WE PROCEED FURTHER, WE MUST DEFINE STATE, STATE VARIABLES, STATE
VECTOR, AND STATE SPACE.

State:

The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set
of variables (called state variables) such that knowledge
of these variables at t = , together with knowledge of the
input for t , completely determines the behavior of the
system for any time t .
Note that the concept of state is by no means limited to
physical systems. It is applicable to biological systems,
economic systems, social systems, and others.

Estado: El estado de un sistema dinmico es el conjunto de variables ms pequeo

(llamadas variables de estado), de forma que el conocimiento de estas variables en t =

, junto con el conocimiento de la entrada para t , determinan completamente el
comportamiento del sistema en cualquier t . Obsrvese que el concepto de estado
no est limitado a sistemas fsicos. Es aplicable a sistemas biolgicos, sistemas
econmicos, sistemas sociales y otros.
 State

Variables: The state variables of a dynamic
system are the variables making up the smallest set of
variables that determine the state of the dynamic system.
If at least n variables , , , are needed to completely
describe the behavior of a dynamic system (so that once
the input is given for t and the initial state at t = is
specified, the future state of the system is completely
determined),then such n variables are a set of state
variables.

Variables de estado: Las variables de un sistema dinmico son las variables que

constituyen el menor conjunto de variables que determinan el estado del sistema dinmico.
Si al menos se necesitan n variables , , , para describir completamente el comportamiento
de un sistema dinmico (de forma que una vez que la entrada para t est dada y el
estado inicial en t = est especificado, el estado futuro del sistema est determinado
completamente), entonces tales n variables son un conjunto de variables de estado.
 Note that state variables need not be physically
measurable or observable quantities. Variables that do
not represent physical quantities and those that are
neither measurable nor observable can be chosen as
state variables. Such freedom in choosing state variables
is an advantage of the state-space methods. Practically,
however, it is convenient to choose easily measurable
quantities for the state variables, if this is possible at all,
because optimal control laws will require the feedback of
all state variables with suitable weighting.

Obsrvese que las variables de estado no necesitan ser fsicamente medibles o cantidades
observables. Se pueden seleccionar como variables de estado variables que no representan
cantidades fsicas y aquellas que no son medibles ni observables. Tal libertad en la eleccin de las
variables de estado es una ventaja de los mtodos en el espacio de estados. Sin embargo,
prcticamente es conveniente seleccionar para las variables de estado cantidades fsicamente
medibles, si esto es posible, porque las leyes de control ptimo requerirn realimentar todas las
variables de estado con una ponderacin adecuada.
 State

Vector: If n state variables are needed to
completely describe the behavior of a given system, then
these n state variables can be considered the n
components of a vector x. Such a vector is called a state
vector. A state vector is thus a vector that determines
uniquely the system state x(t) for any time t ,once the
state at t = is given and the input u(t) for t is
specified.

Vector de estado: Si se necesitan n variables de estado para describir

completamente el comportamiento de un sistema dado, entonces esas n variables de

estado se pueden considerar como las n componentes de un vector x. Este vector se
denomina vector de estado. Un vector de estado es, por lo tanto, un vector que
determina unvocamente el estado del sistema x(t) en cualquier instante del tiempo t
, una vez que se conoce el estado en t = y se especifica la entrada u(t) para t .
 State

Space: The n-dimensional space whose coordinate
axes consist of the axis, axis,, axis, where , ,, are
state variables, is called a state space. Any state can be
represented by a point in the state space.

Espacio de estados: El espacio n-dimensional cuyos ejes de coordenadas estn formados

por el eje , eje , ..., eje , donde , ,, son las variables de estado, se denomina espacio de
estados. Cualquier estado se puede representar como un punto en el espacio de estados.
 State-Space

Equations: In state-space analysis we are
concerned with three types of variables that are involved
in the modeling of dynamic systems: input variables,
output variables, and state variables. The state-space
representation for a given system is not unique, except
that the number of state variables is the same for any of
the different state-space representations of the same
system.
The dynamic system must involve elements that
memorize the values of the input for t . Since
integrators in a continuous-time control system serve as
memory devices, the outputs of such integrators can be
considered as the variables that define the internal state
of the dynamic system. Thus the outputs of integrators
serveenas state variables. The number of state variables to
Ecuaciones

trescompletely
el espacio de estados: En el anlisis en el espacio de estados se centra la atencin en los
define
tipos de variables que aparecen the dynamics
en el modelado of the
de los sistemas system
dinmicos; is equal
las variables to
de entrada, las
variables de salida y las variables de estado. La representacin en el espacio de estados de un sistema dado no
the salvo
es nica, number of integrators
que el nmero involved
de variables de estado in cualquiera
es el mismo para the system.
que sea la representacin en
variables de estado de un mismo sistema.
El sistema dinmico debe contener elementos que recuerden los valores de la entrada para t . Puesto que los
integradores en un sistema de control en tiempo continuo sirven como dispositivo de memoria, las salidas de
tales integradores se pueden considerar como las variables que describen el estado interno del sistema
dinmico. As las salidas de los integradores sirven como variables de estado. El nmero de variables de estado
para definir completamente la dinmica del sistema es igual al nmero de integradores que aparezcan en el
 Assume

that a multiple-input, multiple-output system
involves n integrators. Assume also that there are r inputs
(t), (t), , (t) and m outputs (t), (t), , (t). Define n
outputs of the integrators as state variables: (t), (t), ,
(t) Then the system may be described by

Sea un sistema de mltiples entradas-mltiples salidas con n integradores. Supngase

tambin que hay r entradas (t), (t), , (t) y m salidas (t), (t), , (t). Se definen las n salidas
de los integradores como variables de estado: (t), (t), , (t). Entonces el sistema se puede
describir mediante
 The

outputs (t), (t), , (t) of the system may be given by

If we define
 then Equations (28) and (29) become

Where Equation (210) is the state equation and Equation

(211) is the output equation. If vector functions f and/or
g involve time t explicitly, then the system is called a
time-varying system.
If Equations (210) and (211) are linearized about the
operating state, then we have the following linearized
state equation and output equation:

where A(t) is called the state matrix, B(t) the input matrix,
C(t) the output matrix, and D(t) the direct transmission
matrix.
 A block diagram representation of Equations (212) and
(213) is shown in Figure 214.

If vector functions f and g do not involve time t explicitly

then the system is called a time-invariant system. In this
case, Equations (212) and (213) can be simplified to
 Equation (214) is the state equation of the linear, time-
invariant system and Equation (215) is the output
equation for the same system. In this book we shall be
concerned mostly with systems described by Equations
(214) and (215).

La Ecuacin (2-14) es la ecuacin de estado del sistema

lineal e invariante con el tiempo y la Ecuacin (2-15) es la
ecuacin de salida para el mismo sistema. Este libro se
concentra en los sistemas descritos mediante las
 CORRELATION BETWEEN TRANSFER FUNCTIONS AND STATE-
SPACE EQUATIONS.
In what follows we shall show how to derive the transfer
function of a single-input, single-output system from the
state-space equations.
Let us consider the system whose transfer function is
given by
This system may be represented in state space by the
following equations:

Where x is the state vector, u is the input, and y is the

output. The Laplace transforms of Equations (223) and
(224) are given by

A continuacin se mostrar cmo obtener la funcin de transferencia

de un sistema con una sola entrada y una sola salida a partir de las
ecuaciones en el espacio de estados. Considrese el sistema cuya
 Since the transfer function was previously defined as the
ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of the input when the initial conditions were
zero, we set x(0) in Equation (225) to be zero. Then we
have

By premultiplying to both sides of this last equation, we

obtain
By substituting Equation (227) into Equation (226), we
get
Upon comparing Equation (228) with Equation (222),
we see that
This is the transfer-function expression of the system in
terms of A, B, C, and D. Note that the right-hand side of
Equation (229) involves . Hence G(s) can be written as
 Where Q(s) is a polynomial in s. Notice that is equal to
the characteristic polynomial of G(s).In other words, the
eigenvalues of A are identical to the poles of G(s).
 TRANSFER MATRIX
Next, consider a multiple-input, multiple-output system.
Assume that there are r inputs and m outputs. Define
The transfer matrix G(s) relates the
output Y(s) to the input U(s),or

where G(s) is given by

[The derivation for this equation is the same as that for

Equation (229).] Since the input vector u is r dimensional
and the output vector y is m dimensional, the transfer
matrix G(s) is an m*r matrix.
[El clculo de esta ecuacin es el mismo que el de la
Ecuacin (2-29).] Como el vector de entrada u es de
dimensin r y el vector de salida y es de dimensin m, la
matriz de transferencia G(s) es una matriz de m x r.