Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Chapter 6 - 1
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 6 - 2
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
dplastic
delastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Chapter 6 - 3
Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s: Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F
Area, A Area, A Fs
Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 6 - 4
Common States of Stress
Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 5
Engineering Strain
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo
dL /2
Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q
y 90 - q
Strain is always
90 dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. Chapter 6 - 6
Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 - 7
Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E
e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 8
Poisson's ratio, n
eL
Poisson's ratio, n:
eL
n=- e
e
metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
Chapter 6 - 9
Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal
Chapter 6 - 10
Other Elastic Properties
t M
Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test
M
Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G= K=
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
Chapter 6 - 11
Youngs Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 7e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep engineering strain, e
Chapter 6 - 13
Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 14
Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt
1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20
LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6 - 15
10
Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
Chapter 6 - 18
Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)
ey
Ur = sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 20
Elastic Strain Recovery
Chapter 6 - 21
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 22
Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 23
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter 6 - 24
True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
True stress sT = F Ai sT = s1 + e
True Strain eT = ln i o eT = ln1 + e
Chapter 6 - 25
Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0
e
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true stress (F/A) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 26
Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Chapter 6 - 27