Thermal Expansion
V V0 T
L L0 T
= [11x10-6(0C)-1](30.000 m)(40.0C)
= 0.013 m
F L
Tensile stress = Y
A Li
Because Y for steel is 20x1010 N/m2,
Tensile stress is 8.7x107 N/m2
1 cal = 4.186 J
From this de.nition, we can express the energy Q transferred by heat between a
sample of mass m of a material and its surroundings for a temperature change T as
Q = Energy (J)
Q mcT
m = massa (kg)
c = specific heat (J/kg.oC)
T = Temperature (oC)
Specific heats
Latent heats
Different materials store different
amounts of heat energy.
90OC 90OC
1 kg of Aluminum
1 kg of Gold
20OC 20OC
By the time aluminum heats up to 90OC it will have
stored 7 times more calories of heat than the gold did.
Black Principle
To understand the role of latent heat in phase changes, consider the energy required
to convert a 1.00-g block of ice at 30.0C to steam at 120.0C. Figue indicates the
experimental results obtained when energy is gradually added to the ice. Let us
examine each portion of the red curve.
Heat Transfer
Part A. On this portion of the curve, the temperature of the ice changes from
30.0C to 0.0C. Because the specific heat of ice is 2090 J/kg C, we can
calculate the amount of energy added by using equation :
Part B. When the temperature of the ice reaches 0.0C, the ice water mixture
remains at this temperatureeven though energy is being addeduntil all the ice
melts. The energy required to melt 1.00 g of ice at 0.0C is
Thus, we have moved to the 396 J = ( 62.7 J + 333 J) mark on the energy axis.
Azas Black
Heat Transfer
Part C. Between 0.0C and 100.0C, nothing surprising happens. No phase
change occurs, and so all energy added to the water is used to increase its
temperature. The amount of energy necessary to increase the temperature from
0.0C to 100.0C is
Part D. At 100.0C, another phase change occurs as the water changes from
water at 100.0C to steam at 100.0C. Similar to the ice water mixture in part
B, the watersteam mixture remains at 100.0Ceven though energy is being
added until all of the liquid has been converted to steam. The energy required
to convert 1.00 g of water to steam at 100.0C is
The total amount of energy that must be added to change 1 g of ice at 30.0C
to steam at 120.0C is the sum of the results from all five parts of the curve,
which is 3.11x103 J. Conversely, to cool 1 g of steam at 120.0C to ice at
30.0C, we must remove 3.11x103 J of energy.
QTotal = QA + QB + QC + QD + QE = 3.11x103 J
Heat flows outward from Earth's interior. The crust insulates us from
Earth's interior heat. The mantle is semi-molten, the outer core is liquid
and the inner core is solid.
Geothermal
The deeper you go, the hotter it gets (in Celsius and kilometers).
Geothermal
Geothermal
Earth's crust is broken into huge plates that move apart or push together
at about the rate our fingernails grow. Convection of semi-molten rock in
the upper mantle helps drive plate tectonics.
Geothermal
New crust forms along mid-ocean spreading centers and continental rift
zones. When plates meet, one can slide beneath another. Plumes of magma
rise from the edges of sinking plates.
Geothermal
Many areas have accessible geothermal resources, especially countries along the
circum-Pacific "Ring of Fire," spreading centers, continental rift zones and
other hot spots.
Geothermal
Thinned or fractured crust allows magma to rise to the surface as lava. Most
magma doesn't reach the surface but heats large regions of underground rock.
Geothermal
Rainwater can seep down faults and fractured rocks for miles. After being
heated, it can return to the surface as steam or hot water.
Geothermal
When hot water and steam reach the surface, they can form fumaroles,
hot springs, mud pots and other interesting phenomena.
Geothermal
When the rising hot water and steam is trapped in permeable and porous
rocks under a layer of impermeable rock, it can form a geothermal reservoir.
Geothermal
Natural steam from the production wells power the turbine generator. The
steam is condensed by evaporation in the cooling tower and pumped down an
injection well to sustain production.
Geothermal
Like all steam turbine generators, the force of steam is used to spin the trubine
blades which spin the generator, prducing electricity. But with geothermal
energy, no fuels are burned.
Geothermal
20OC 20OC
By the time aluminum heats up to 90OC it will have
stored 7 times more calories of heat than the gold did.