MINERAL

COMPUNDS
Yosevina
Aga
Arina
Claudia

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Mineral?

What is mineral?

Mineral is the constituents which remain as ash after the combustion of plant and animal tissues.

Mineral are divided into :

a. Main elements
b. Trace elements
c. Ulta-trace elements
Minerals?
Main elements
Essential for human beings in amounts >50 mg/day/
Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, P, S (Amino acids)
Electrolytes (enzyme constituents)
Building materials (bone and teeth)

Table 1. Main elements in the human body

Main Elements
Sodium
1.4 g/kg human body.
An extracellular constituent
Maintains the osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid.
Activates some enzymes (amylase).
Sodium absorptions rate : starts 3-6 min after intake, completed withi
n 3 h.
Daily intake :

: 2.5 g

: 3.3 g
 Disorders caused by Sodium
Excessive intake Low intake
It is not so important
disorders
Main Elements
Potassium
2.0 g/kg human body.
Localized mostly within the cells.
Maintains the osmotic pressure within the cell.
Activates a number of glycolytic and respiratory enzymes.
Daily intake : 2-5.9 g/day.
Disorders caused by Potassium

Excessive intake Low intake

Result of undernourishm
ent or predominant cosu
mption of potassium-defi
cient foods.
Main Elements
Magnesium
250 mg/kg human body.
Act as a constituent and activator of many enzymes, particularly those
associated with the conversion of energy-rich phospate compounds.
Stabilizer of plasma membranes, intracellular membranes, and nucleic
acids.
Daily intake : 300-500 mg/day.
Main Elements
Calcium
Total amount in the body : 1500 gr.
Abundant in the skeleton and in some body tissues.
Involved in the structure of the muscle system and controls essential p
rocesses,
Daily intake :
<6 months : 0.4 gr/day
6-12 months : 0.6 gr/day
1-5 years : 0.8 gr/day
6-10 years : 0.8-1.2 gr/day
11-24 years, and pregnant women : 1.2-1.5 gr/day
25-65 years : 1.0 gr/day
>65 years : 1.5 days
Main elements
Main source of calcium
Milk and milk product
A considerable distance by fruit and vegetables
Cereal products
Meat
Fish
Eggs
Minerals?
Chloride
1.1 g/kg human body.
Plasma concentration : 98-106 mmol/l
Serves as a counter ion for sodium in extracellular fluid and for hydrog
enions in gastric juice.
Chlorine absorptions rate : as rapid as its excretion in the urine.
Daily intake : corresponds on a molar basis to the sodium requirement
.
Main elements
Phosphorus
Total 700 gr.
Plasma concentration : 98-106 mmol/l
In the form of phosphate, free or bound as an ester or present as an a
nhydrade.
Essential nutrient.
Absorb in the form of inorganic phosphate.
Polyphosphates are absorbed only after prior hydrolysis into orthopho
sphate.
Daily intake : 0.8-1.2 gr.
Minerals?
Trace elements
Essential in concentrations of <50 mg/day
Fe, I, F, Zn, Se, Cu, Mn, Cr, Mo, Co, Ni
Electrolytes (enzyme constituents)
Building materials (bone and teeth)
Trace Elements
Table 7.3 Trace elements in the human body and their
daily intake
Individual Trace Elements
Iron
Total 4-5 gr.
Present in the hemoglobin (blood) and myoglobin (muscle tissue) pig
ments. Also present in a number of enzymes (peroxidase, catalase, hyd
roxylases, and flavine enzymes).
Source : meat (20-30%), liver (6.3%), fish (5.9%), cereals, vegetables, mi
lk (1.0-1.5%)
Daily intake : 1.5-2.2 mg/day.
Supplied in the diet : about 15 mg/day.
Minerals?
Ultra-trace elements
Its essentiality has been tested in animal experients over several gener
ations and deficiency symptoms have been found under these extreme
conditions.
It is possible to detect a biochemical function in a vital tissue or organ
, the element is assigned to the trace elements.
Al, As, Ba, Bi, B, Br, Cd, Cs, Ge, Hg, Li, Pb, Rb, Sb, Si, Sm, Sn, Sr, Tl, Ti,
W
Minerals?
Mineral contents in same raw material
Fluctuate greatly depending on :
Genetic factors
Climatic factors
Agricultural procedures
Composition of the soil
Ripeness of the harvested crops.

Changes in the mineral contetnt usually occur also in the processing mate
rials.
Minerals?
Importance of minerals
Nutritional and physiological roles
Contribute to food flavor
Activate or inhibit enzyme-catalyzed and other reactions
Affect the texture of food.
Mineral?

Table 2. Mineral content of some foods

Mineral?
Table 2. Mineral content of some foods
Mineral?
Table 2. Mineral content of some foods
ETHERS
DEFINITION
1. Ethers are a class of organic compounds that contain an
ether groupan oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or
aryl groups. They have the general formula ROR,
where R and R represent the alkyl or aryl groups.
2. Ethers can again be classified into two varieties: if the
alkyl groups are the same on both sides of the oxygen
atom, then it is a simple or symmetrical ether, whereas if
they are different, the ethers are called mixed or
unsymmetrical ethers
Example

Symmetrical ether Unsymmetrical ether

PROPERTIES
OF ETHERS
Properties of Ethers
Ethers do not hydrogen bond to one another. As a
result they have lower boiling point than alcohols.
The ether oxygen can form hydrogen bonds with
water, causing low molecular weight ethers to be
water soluble. Ethers with large organic groups are
water insoluble.
Simple ethers are highly flammable solvents.
PREPARATION OF ETHERS
Preparation of ethers by dehydration
of alcohols
In the presence of protic acids (sulphuric acid),
alcohols undergo dehydration to produce alkenes
and ethers under different conditions. For example:
in the presence of sulphuric acid, dehydration of
ethanol at 443 K yields ethene whereas it yields
ethoxyethane at 413 K. This is an ideal method of
preparation through primary alcohols.
 The preparation of ethers by dehydration of alcohol is
a nucleophilic substitution reaction. The alcohol involved
in reaction plays two roles: one alcohol molecule act as
substrate while the other acts as a nucleophile. It can
follow either SN1 or SN2 mechanism.
The choice of mechanism depends on whether the
protonated alcohol loses water before or simultaneously
upon the attack of a second alcohol molecule.
Generally, the secondary and tertiary alcohols follow
SN1 mechanism while the primary alcohols follow SN2
mechanism.
Preparations of ethers by Williamson
synthesis
Williamson synthesis is an important method for the
preparation of symmetrical and asymmetrical
ethers in laboratories. In this method, an alkyl
halide is reacted with sodium alkoxide which leads
to the formation of ether.
 As we know alkoxides are strong bases and they can
react with alkyl halides leading to elimination reactions.
Williamson synthesis exhibits higher productivity in case
of primary alkyl halides. In case of secondary alkyl
halides, elimination competes with substitution whereas,
we observe the formation of elimination product only in
case of tertiary alkyl halides.
NAMING ETHERS
 According to the IUPAC nomenclature ethers are
regarded as hydrocarbon derivatives in which a
hydrogen atom is replaced by an alkoxy group -
OR, the larger group (R) being chosen as the parent
hydrocarbon. Ethers are named as alkoxyalkenes.
The larger alkyl group forms the part of parent
chain while lower alkyl group constitutes the alkoxy
radical.
 Examples:

The numbering of the parent chain is done so that

the carbon atom linked to the -O-atom gets the
lowest number.
 The numbering of the parent chain is done so that
the carbon atom linked to the -O-atom gets the
lowest number.
Trivial name
IUPAC rules are often not followed for simple ethers.
The trivial names for simple ethers (i.e., those with none
or few other functional groups) are a composite of the
two substituents followed by "ether". For example, ethyl
methyl ether (CH3OC2H5), diphenylether (C6H5OC6H5).
As for other organic compounds, very common ethers
acquired names before rules for nomenclature were
formalized. Diethyl ether is simply called "ether," but
was once called sweet oil of vitriol. Methyl phenyl ether
is anisole, because it was originally found in aniseed.
The aromatic ethers include furans.
 The common name of an ether consists of the names
of the two alkyl substituents (in alphabetical order),
followed by the word ether. The smallest ethers
are almost always named by their common names.
Polyethers
Polyethers are compounds with more than one ether
group.
Polyether generally refers to polymers which contain
the ether functional group in their main chain. The term
glycol is reserved for low to medium range molar mass
polymer when the nature of the end-group, which is
usually a hydroxyl group, still matters. The term "oxide"
or other terms are used for high molar mass polymer
when end-groups no longer affect polymer properties.
 Aliphatic polyethers

The phenyl ether polymers are a class of aromatic polyethers containing aromatic cycles in
their main chain: Polyphenyl ether (PPE) and Poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO).
REACTIONS
 Ethers are quite stable chemical compounds which
do not react with bases, active metals, dilute acids,
oxidising agents and reducing agents. Important
reactions are listed as follow.
Ether cleavage
Although ethers resist hydrolysis, their polar bonds are
cloven by mineral acids such as hydrobromic acid and
hydroiodic acid. Hydrogen chloride cleaves ethers only
slowly. Methyl ethers typically afford methyl halides:
ROCH3 + HBr CH3Br + ROH
These reactions proceed via onium intermediates, i.e.
[RO(H)CH3]+Br.
Some ethers undergo rapid cleavage with boron tribromide
(even aluminium chloride is used in some cases) to give the
alkyl bromide. Depending on the substituents, some ethers
can be cloven with a variety of reagents, e.g. strong base.
Peroxide formation
When stored in the presence of air or oxygen, ethers tend to form
explosive peroxides, such as diethyl ether peroxide. The reaction is
accelerated by light, metal catalysts, and aldehydes. In addition to
avoiding storage conditions likely to form peroxides, it is
recommended, when an ether is used as a solvent, not to distill it to
dryness, as any peroxides that may have formed, being less volatile
than the original ether, will become concentrated in the last few
drops of liquid.
To check presence of peroxide in old samples of ethers may be
detected by shaking them with freshly prepared solution of a
FeSO4 followed by addition of kcn (potassium cyanide) appearance
of blood red color indicates the presence of peroxides.
IMPORTANT ETHERS
VITAMINS
What is Vitamin ?
Vitamins are defined as organic compounds which
are required in small amount for the maintenance
and growth of living organisms.
It is an essential nutrient the body cannot produce
enough of and need to get from food.
Types of vitamins
The two types of vitamins are classified by the
materials in which they will dissolve, which are :
Fat-soluble vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins
Fat-soluble Vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins dissolve in fat before they are
absorbed in the blood stream to carry out their functions.
Excesses of these vitamins are stored in the liver and
adipose tissue.
These vitamins are not needed everyday in the diet.
The fat-soluble vitamins are:
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Vitamin A
Functions :
Promote vision (retinal)

Participate in protein
synthesis and cell
differentiation
Support reproduction and
growth
Support immunity (retinoic
and carotenoids)
Involved in bone growth
and remodeling
Synthesis glycoproteins
Vitamin D

Functions:
Bone mineralization

and maintenance of
serum calcium levels
Acts as hormone,

calcitriol
Vitamin E
Functions:
Antioxidant: Free radical
scavenger
Protect cell membranes

Protect low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) from
oxidation
Protection of double
bonds in polyunsaturated
fatty acids
Works in conjunction of
selenium
Vitamin K
Functions:
Conversion of

prothrombin to
thrombin
Formation of

fibrinogen and
decrease bone
resorption
Water-soluble Vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are
not stored.
Readily excreted by kidney and eliminated in urine.
Function as a coenzyme and in energy metabolism
Human body need a continuous supply of these
vitamins in the diets.
The water-soluble vitamins are :
Vitamin B-complex group
Vitamin C
Vitamin C
Functions:
Formation of collagen (a
component of tissue)
Wound healing

Maintaining blood vessels,

bone, teeth
Absorption of iron, calcium,
folacin
Production of brain
hormones, immune factors
Antioxidant
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)

Functions:
Helps release energy

from foods
Promotes normal

appetite
Importance in function

of nervous system
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Functions:
Helps release energy

from foods
Promote good vision

Promotes healthy skin

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

Functions:
Energy production from

foods
Aids digestion

Promotes normal
appetite
Promotes healthy skin,

nerves
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)

Functions:
Involved in energy

production
Aids in formation of
hormones
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Functions:
Aids in protein

metabolism
Absorption; aids in

red blood cell

formation
Helps body use fats
Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Functions:
Helps release
energy from
carbohydrates
Aids in fat synthesis
Vitamin B9 (Folic acid)

Functions:
Aids in protein
metabolism
Promotes red blood cell
formation
Prevent birth defect of
spine, brain
Lowers homocysteine
levels and thus coronary
heart attack disease risk
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Functions:
Aids in building of

genetic material
Aids in development of

normal red blood cells

Maintenance of nervous

system
Fat-soluble Vitam
ins
Vitamins Common Food Sources
Vitamin A Fortified milk products, eggs,
liver, dark green and yellow
vegetables/fruits
Vitamin D Fatty fish, fortified milk and
cereals, eggs, butter, liver,
sunlight
Vitamin E Plant oil, green leafy
vegetables, margarine, oat,
wheat germ, nuts
Vitamin K Dark green leafy vegetables,
liver
Deficiency of Vitamins
Night blindness, bone growth
cessation, anemia, depressed
immune system
Rickets (weak and bowed bones),
osteomalacia (adult form of
rickets)
Breakdown of red blood cell (RBC)
Rare- generally caused by lack of
healthy bacteria in the gut which
makes vitamin K- generally due to
antibiotic overuse
Water-soluble Vit
amins
Vitamins Common Food Sources Deficiency Symptoms
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, broccoli, Bleeding gums, wounds do not
strawberries, melon, green heal; bruise easily; dry, rough
pepper, tomatoes, skin; scurvy, sore joints and
bones; increased infection
Vitamin B1 Meats, liver, whole grains, Mental confusion; muscle
(Thiamin) enriched grain products, weakness, wasting; edema;
peas, legumes impaired growth; beriberi
Vitamin B2 Liver, milk, dark green Cracks at corner of mouth;
(Riboflavin) vegetables, whole and dermatitis around nose and lips;
enriched grains products, eyes sensitive to light
eggs
Vitamin B3 Liver, fish, poultry, meat, Skin disorders; diarrhea;
(Niacin) peanuts, whole and enriched weakness; mental confusion;
grain products irritability
Vitamin B5 Liver, kidney, meats, egg Uncommon due to availability in
(Pantothenic Acid) yolk, whole grains, legume; most foods; fatigue; nausea,
also made by intestinal abdominal cramps; difficulty
bacteria sleeping
Vitamins Common Food Sources
Vitamin B7 Liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk,
(Biotin) most fresh vegetables, also
made by intestinal bacteria
Vitamin B9 Liver, kidney, dark green leafy
(Folic Acid) vegetables, meats, fish, whole
grains, fortified grains and
cereals, legumes, citrus fruits
Vitamin B12 Found only in animal foods;
(Cobalamin) meats, liver, kidney, fish eggs,
milk, oyster, shellfish
Deficiency Symptoms
Uncommon under normal
circumstances; fatigue; loss of
appetite, nausea, vomiting;
depression; muscle pains; anemia
Anemia; smooth tongue; diarrhea
Pernicious anemia, anemia;
neurology disorders;
degeneration of peripheral
nerves that may cause numbness,
tingling in fingers and toes
Application of Vitamins in Industry
Pharmaceutical
Food and beverages
Cosmetic and
personal care
Agriculture, animal
feed and poultry
BIOACTIVE COMPUND
 Bioactive compounds have roles in our body. but
their roles arent the same as essential nutrients
 Bioactive compounds can be founded in plants and
animals, or it can be synthetized.
Flavonoids
Polyphenolic compounds that are ubiquitous in
nature and are categorized, according to chemical
structure, into flavonols, flavones, flavanones,
isoflavones, catechins, anthocyanidins and chalcones
What are flavonols?
Flavonols are phytochemical compounds found in
high concentrations in a variety of plant-based
foods and beverages. Based on their structure,
flavonols are classified as flavonoids and include
the following compounds: quercitin, kaempferol, and
myricetin.
 The flavonoids have aroused considerable interest
recently because of their potential beneficial
effects on human health they have been reported to
have antiviral, antiallergic, antiplatelet,
antiinflammatory, antitumor and antioxidant
activities.
 Antioxidants are compounds that protect cells
against the damaging effects of reactive oxygen
species, such as singlet oxygen, superoxide, peroxyl
radicals, hydroxyl radicals and peroxynitrite.
 An imbalance between antioxidants and reactive
oxygen species results in oxidative stress, leading to
cellular damage. Oxidative stress has been linked
to cancer, aging, atherosclerosis, ischemic injury,
inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases
(Parkinson's and Alzheimer's).
 Flavonoids may help provide protection against
these diseases by contributing, along with
antioxidant vitamins and enzymes, to the total
antioxidant defense system of the human body.
 Epidemiological studies have shown that flavonoid
intake is inversely related to mortality from
coronary heart disease and to the incidence of
heart attacks.
 The recognized dietary antioxidants are vitamin C,
vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids. However,
recent studies have demonstrated that flavonoids
found in fruits and vegetables may also act as
antioxidants.
 Like alphatocopherol (vitamin E), flavonoids contain
chemical structural elements that may be
responsible for their antioxidant activities. The
contribution of flavonoids to the antioxidant
defense system may be substantial considering that
the total daily intake of flavonoids can range from
50 to 800 mg.
Dosage

Flavonoid intake depends upon the consumption of

fruits, vegetables, and certain beverages, such as
red wine, tea, and beer. The high consumption of
tea and wine may be most influential on total
flavonoid intake in certain groups of people.
 This intake is high compared to the average daily
intake of other dietary antioxidants like:
vitamin C (70 mg)
vitamin E (710 mg)
or carotenoids (23 mg).
Antioxidant flavonoids
Quercetin (a flavonol in vegetables, fruit skins,
onions)
Xanthohumol (a prenylated chalcone in hops and
beer)
Isoxanthohumol (a prenylated flavanone in hops
and beer)
 Genistein (an isoflavone in soy) Prooxidant
flavonoids
Chalconaringenin (a nonprenylated chalcone in
citrus fruits)
Naringenin (a nonprenylated flavanone in citrus
fruits)
 The capacity of flavonoids to act as antioxidants
depends upon their molecular structure. The position
of hydroxyl groups and other features in the
chemical structure of flavonoids are important for
their antioxidant and free radical scavenging
activities.
 Quercetin, the most abundant dietary flavonol, is a
potent antioxidant because it has all the right
structural features for free radical scavenging
activity.
 The antioxidant properties of the prenylflavonoids
were compared to those of quercetin (a flavonol),
genistein (the major isoflavone in soy),
chalconaringenin (a nonprenylated chalcone),
naringenin (a nonprenylated flavanone), and
vitamin E.
 Xanthohumol, the major prenylchalcone in hops and
beer, is a more powerful antioxidant than vitamin E
or genistein. However, xanthohumol was less potent
than quercetin. The potency of xanthohumol as an
antioxidant is markedly increased when combined
with an equivalent amount of vitamin E.
 A flavonoid chalcone (chalconaringenin) and a
flavanone (naringenin) with no prenyl groups act as
prooxidants, i.e. they promote rather than limit the
oxidation of LDL by copper. However, adding a
prenyl group to these flavonoid molecules
counteracted their prooxidant activities.
 The specific amounts of flavonols in foods are
affected by a range of factors including plant type
and growth, season, light, degree of ripeness, food
preparation, and processing.
 Despite these variables, high concentrations of
flavonols can be found in apples, apricots, beans,
broad beans, broccoli, cherry tomatoes, chives,
cranberries, kale, leeks, pear, onions, red grapes,
sweet cherries, and white currants .
Beneficial effects associated with
consumption of flavonols
Consumption of flavonols has been associated with
a variety of beneficial effects including:
Increased activity of erythrocyte superoxide
dismutase (an antioxidant enzyme found in red
blood cells)
 A decrease in lymphocyte DNA damage, a
decrease in urinary 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine
(a marker of oxidative damage),
An increase in plasma antioxidant capacity (the
ability to scavenge free radicals) .
Sources

Apples: Studies have investigated the relationship

between consumption of apples and susceptibility to
chronic diseases such as:
Cancer
CVD
Asthma
Diabetes .
 Broccoli: Cruciferous vegetables are part of the
plant family Brassicaceae, which includes:
Broccoli
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Brussels sprouts
Turnips
Watercress.
 Consumption of this group of plant foods has been
associated with a reduction in risk of several
cancers including:
Lung
Breast
Colorectal
Prostate
 Cranberries: Cranberries are commonly touted as a
remedy for treating urinary tract infections. Current
research has also investigated the relationship
between consumption of cranberry products and
cancer and cardiovascular disease.
PREBIOTICS
prebiotics
non-digestible food ingredients
that beneficially affect the host by
selectively stimulating the growth
and/or activity of one or a limited
number of bacteria in the colon,
and thus improve host health
Breast milk composition

Human milk contains 813 g/L of a

complex mixture of oligosaccharides
which is about 20-fold higher than
those of bovine milk
 Bacterial roles

Commensal bacteria confer metabolic,

protective, and trophic functions to the host
through fermentation of non-digestible
carbohydrates, vitamin production, bile acids
biotransformation, barrier protection against
opportunistic pathogens, control against gut
epithelial cell proliferation and maturation
and stimulation of both local and systemic immunity
Caffeine
Caffeine is one of the most widely
used drugs in the world.
It has also been estimated that the
average adult caffeine intake in
the United States is 200 to 400 mg
per day.
Caffeine can be found in all sorts
of things like coffee, energy drinks,
soft drinks, chocolate, migraine
medicine, tea, dietary supplements,
etc.
Caffeine is normally consumed
orally through the beverages or
food in which it is present.
Caffeine
Caffeine is a psychoactive drug that acts as a CNS
stimulant
Its chemical name is 1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-
2,6(3H,7H)-dione
Primary Uses
Caffeine has many uses
It does not affect all people in the same way
Most people who do consume caffeine do so on regular basis
Athletes use caffeine to improve their performance and be on top of
their game
sufferers use caffeine to alleviate their pain
Night shift employees or truck drivers may use it to make fewer
mistakes as a result of being tired or to increase alertness during
sleep deprivation
Students may use caffeine to stay up late studying
It is primarily used as a mild CNS stimulant to aid in staying awake
and restore mental alertness
Behavioral Effects
There are numerous behavioral effects for primary use and
some major side effects
Studies demonstrated effects in rodents
At low doses it had stimulant effects
At high doses rodents showed reduced activity levels.
Humans do not show behavioral depression but they do
experience tension and anxiety at higher doses
Caffeine does more than just increase arousal. There are a
variety of positive subjective effects, such as:
Feelings of well-being, enhanced energy or vigor, increased
alertness and ability to concentrate, self-confidence, increased
work motivation, enhanced sociability, and reduced tension
Undesirable Side Effects
There are multiple unwanted or undesirable side effects as well,
such as:
increased blood pressure and respiration rate, enhanced water
excretion, etc.
Caffeine has a positive ionotropic effect on the myocardium and
chronotropic effect on the sinoatrial node
Results in a transient increase in heart rate, force of contraction, and
cardiac output
Some additional side effects are as follows but not limited to;
nervousness, insomnia, restlessness, irritability, confusion, agitation,
delirium, twitching, tremors, convulsions, tingling of face, flushing,
palpitation, nausea, vomiting, epigastric discomfort, gastric irritation,
diarrhea, etc.
Mechanisms of Action
The mechanisms of action, neurotransmitter systems, and the
receptor subtypes are not completely clear, but much
progress has been made with time
Caffeine is rapidly absorbed
It is water-soluble and lipid-soluble, which allows it to cross
the BBB
It has a wide distribution and an almost immediate effect on
alertness
Originally it was thought that it directly influenced
catecholamine systems, and that it was an inhibitor of cAMP
phosphodiesterase. It was thought that it blocked GABA(A)
receptors and that it stimulated CA++ release within cells
Absorption and Metabolism
There are several factors related to route of administration,
absorption, distribution, and fate
Caffeine is rapidly absorbed. It is actually peaks 15-45 minutes
after administration
It is widely distributed throughout the body, and metabolized in the
liver
Metabolites account for almost all caffeine excretion
Only 1 to 2% is excreted unchanged
In humans , caffeine metabolites are eliminated through urine, 2-5%
through feces, and the remainder through body fluids like saliva
Metabolism is influenced by prior ingestion of caffeine, gender,
smoking status, and other drugs
Interactions With Other Drugs
Cigarette smoke used repeatedly causes an
increase in a liver enzyme known
Thisspeeds up the rate of
biotransformation/metabolism of caffeine
People who are heavy smokers may need higher doses
of caffeine, because it is metabolized by the same
enzyme
Caffeine also interacts with other drugs
Itincreases the effects of cimetidine and theophylline
toxicity
Caffeine Tolerance
Regular caffeine use can lead to tolerance to some of
caffeines subjective effects as well as disrupt sleep
Chronic caffeine use can produce tolerance to the
cardiovascular and respiratory effects of the drug
Some withdrawal symptoms are:
Headache, lethargy, fatigue, impaired concentration,
impaired psychomotor performance, and in some cases mild
anxiety or depression
Physiological Effects
Heavy coffee drinking has been linked with
increased blood pressure and a heightened risk of
coronary heart disease
High caffeine consumption has also been reported
to be associated with low infant birth weight
Other Effects
Chronic ingestion of excessive amounts of caffeine can lead
to a syndrome.
Caffeinism is characterized by restlessness, nervousness,
insomnia, and physiological disturbances, such as
tachycardia and gastrointestinal upset.
Extremely high doses of caffeine may produce even more
severe psychiatric effects.
Caffeine consumption causes physical dependence and can
also lead to a compulsive use pattern.
Caffeine is reinforcing to regular users. Caffeine
reinforcement is related to a combination of functional
enhancement and relief from withdrawal symptoms.