PENDAHULUAN

1.1. Resources and Causes of EQ

1.2. Plate Tectronic Theory
1.3. Seismic Wave
1.4 Measurement of EQ

Photo credit: USGS

RESOURCES AND CAUSES EARTHQUAKE
 Apakah gempa itu ?

Gempa adalah pergeseran dan tumbukan tiba-tiba dari lapisan tanah di bawah permukaan
bumi (lempeng). Ketika tumbukan ini terjadi, timbul getaran yang disebut gelombang
seismik. Gelombang ini menjalar menjauhi fokus gempa ke segala arah di dalam bumi.
Ketika gelombang ini mencapai permukaan bumi, getarannya bisa mengakibatkan beberapa
sumber perusakan.
Components of Earth
Components of Earth

!
Components of Plate
Components of Earth

8
Di mana gempa terjadi ?

Lapisan litosfir bumi terdiri atas lempeng-lempeng tektonik yang kaku dan terapung di
atas batuan yang relatif tidak kaku. Daerah pertemuan dua lempeng atau lebih disebut
sebagai plate margin atau batas lempeng, disebut juga sesar. Gempa dapat terjadi
dimanapun di bumi ini, tetapi umumnya gempa terjadi di sekitar batas lempeng dan
sesar aktif di sekitar batas lempeng. Titik tertentu di sepanjang sesar tempat dimulainya
gempa disebut fokus atau hiposentrum dan titik di permukaan bumi yang tepat di
atasnya disebut episentrum.
 Mengapa terjadi gempa ?

Lapisan paling atas bumi, yaitu litosfir, merupakan batuan yang relatif dingin berada pada
kondisi padat dan kaku. Di bawah lapisan ini terdapat batuan yang jauh lebih panas yang
disebut mantel. Lapisan ini sedemikian panasnya sehingga senantiasa dalam keadaan
tidak kaku, sehingga dapat bergerak sesuai dengan proses pendistribusian panas yang kita
kenal sebagai aliran konveksi. Lempeng tektonik yang merupakan bagian dari litosfir
padat dan terapung di atas mantel ikut bergerak satu sama
Jika dua lempeng bertemu pada suatu sesar, keduanya dapat bergerak saling menjauhi
(spreading), saling mendekati (collision) dan saling bergeser (transform). Umumnya,
gerakan ini berlangsung lambat dan tidak dapat dirasakan oleh manusia namun terukur
sebesar 0-15cm pertahun. Kadang-kadang, gerakan lempeng ini macet dan saling
mengunci, sehingga terjadi pengumpulan energi yang berlangsung terus sampai pada
suatu saat batuan pada lempeng tektonik tersebut tidak lagi kuat menahan gerakan
tersebut sehingga terjadi pelepasan energi mendadak yang dikenal sebagai gempa bumi.
 DI mana gempa terjadi dan Berapa Sering ?

Gempa dapat terjadi kapan saja, tanpa mengenal waktu. Meskipun konsentrasi
gempa cenderung terjadi di tempat-tempat tertentu saja, seperti pada sabuk
lingkaran Pasifik (circum-pacific-belt). Tempat ini dikenal dengan Lingkaran
Api karena banyaknya gunung berapi.
DI mana gempa terjadi dan Berapa Sering ?
- 80% gempa terjadi circum-pasific belt
- 15% terjadi in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt
- sisanya 5% di interior lempeng dan di pusat spreading ridge
Lebih dari 150,000 gempa kuat/cukup kuat tercatat setiap
tahun
Gempa Penyebab Kerusakan dan Kematian ?

landslide
Earthquakes dont kill people - somethings do!

shaking
tsunami
liquefaction

faulting fire

faulting
 Fires caused by 1906 San Francisco Earthquake

The fire that was caused by the earthquake took three days
and nights to get under control.
It finally went out on April 21, 1906.
From this fire one quarter of the city was burned up.
Faults (Patahan)

Crust pulling apart normal faults

 Structural Failure
Santa Monica Freeway, Northridge earthquake, January 17, 1994; Magnitude 6.7

Photo credit: M. Celebi,

U.S. Geological Survey
 Structural Failure
Izmit earthquake, Turkey, 17August 1999; Magnitude 7.4

Photo Credit: National

Geophysical Data Center
 Structural failure
Pancaked Building, Mexico earthquake, 1985 ; Magnitude 7.8
 Landslide
El Salvador earthquake, January 13, 2001; Magnitude 7.6

Photo Credit: USGS

 Landslide
Seattle, Washington 29 April 1965, Magnitude 6.5

Photo Credit: University of

California, Berkeley
 Landshift
Imperial Valley, California earthquake, October 15, 1970; Magnitude 6.5

Photo Credit:
University of Colorado
Liquefaction
 Liquefaction
Niigata earthquake, Japan, June 16, 1964 ; Magnitude 7.4

Photo Credit: National

Geophysical Data Center
Liquefaction from the 1985 Mexico Earthquake
 Tsunamii
Andaman Island Earthquake, Dec,26,2004
 5 GEMPA TERBESAR DI DUNIA
(YANG PERNAH TERCATAT)
Chile,
1960 05 22, 9.5 SR
Prince William Sound, Alaska
1964 03 28, 9.2 SR
Andrean of Islands, Alaska,
1957 03 09, 9.1 SR
Kamchatka,
1952 11 04, 9.0 SR
Pantai Barat Sumatra Utara (ACEH)
2004 12 26, 9.0 SR

- Jogja....5,9 SR Tidak termasuk dalam gempa besar

 Most Destructive Known Earthquakes
on Record in the World
Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths

China, Shansi, January 23, 1556, 830.000, ~8

Sumatra, December 26, 2004, 283.106, 9.0
China, Tangshan, July 27, 1976, 255.000, 7.5
Syria, Aleppo, August 9, 1138, 230.000
China, near Xining, May 22, 1927, 200.000, 7.9
Iran, Damghan, December 22, 856+, 200.000
Jogja, 2006, 6000 jiwa menjadi korban
Anatomy of Earthquakes
 The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake
The point within Earth where faulting begins is the focus, or hypocenter

The point directly above the focus on the surface is the epicenter.
Epicenter is located using the difference in velocities of P and S waves
 BAGAIMANA MENENTUKAN LOKASI
EPICENTRUM GEMPA

Three seismograph stations are

needed to locate the epicenter of
an earthquake
A circle where the radius equals
the distance to the epicenter is
drawn
The intersection of the circles
locates the epicenter
Epicenter located using three seismographs
 How do you locate an epicenter?
You must have three different seismographs at three different
Locations - then you can pinpoint the different times each picked
Up the earthquake wave. You will do this in a lab.

Surface epicenter

A B
Which seismic
Station will
focus Receive the
Wave first?
A or B
 Location of epicenter

Since S and P waves travel at different speeds the time between arrival of each is a
measure of distance from the epicenter.
The direction is unknown, so by using a triangulation from three different recording
stations it is possible to locate the epicenter.
 Locating an Earthquake
We can determine the distance to an epicenter
by finding the difference between the arrival of
p waves and s waves , then looking at a travel-
time graph we can determine how far away the
epicenter is

Travel-time graphs from three or more

seismographs can be used to find the exact
location of an earthquake epicenter
Graph to find distance to epicenter
Travel-Time Graph
Locating Earthquake Epicenter
Mineralogy of Earths Layers

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/
 Chemical Composition of the Earth

Outer Core (2250km)

Crust (20-60km)
Fe, Ni
O, Al, Si,
(Mostly liquid iron)
Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K

Mantle (~2800km)
Mg, Fe, Si (Silicates)
Inner Core (1250km) 6371km
Fe, Ni
(Mostly solid iron)
 Mechanic structure of the Earth

Outer Core
High temp. and
pressure induces liquid
state. Convection and
Plates/Lithosphere/Strong layer
the Earths rotation
Fairly rigid/brittle slabs of rock
cause eddy currents
(crust and outermost mantle,
100-200km)

Inner Core
Solid. Heat of formation
and Radioactivity are
source of energy for
convection currents
Asthenosphere/weak layer
High temp. and pressure induces
viscoplasticity in solid rock.
On a geological time-scale, convection
currents are present.
(mantle )
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
 Plate Tectonics Theory
lithosphere is divided into rigid plates that move over the
asthenosphere.
Plate boundaries rub together and are geologically active : earthquakes
and Volcanoes
 Worlds Plates
Major plates shown below
Some of the plate boundaries are not clearly understood yet.
At boundaries: fault, volcanoes, mountains
Each drifting in different directions
Earths Tectonic Plates
 3 TIPE PLATE BOUNDARIES
Convergent
Compression causes shortening of the rock layers through
folding & faulting.

Divergent
Tension lengthens and causes faulting.

Transform
Shear stress results in displacement (with a horizontal
component) along a plane.
Plate Boundary (Batas Lempeng/Sesar)

TRANSFORM
DIVERGEN

KONVERGEN
Three Kind of Plate Boundary Type
 Convergent boundaries
Associated with structures of compression
High frequency of earthquakes
May be marked by oceanic trenches and
subduction zones
Suture zones are formed when continental
masses are welded together
 Convergent boundaries
Oceanic plate subducts (dives) underneath the continental plate
forming a deep oceanic trench at the boundary.
Volcanos are produced by released water, at high temp. and pressure,
from subducting plate.
Large deep (>300km), earthquakes are produced.
 Divergent boundaries
Associated with tensional structures
New crust is added at the trailing edges
as basaltic lava wells up from the mantle
Many shallow earthquakes associated
with rifting
Characterized by a mid-oceanic ridge
split by a deep rift
 Divergent boundaries
Movement of plates at a divergent boundary normally produces small,
shallow earthquakes
Mid-Atlantic ridge is an example of a divergent boundary
Earthquakes at Divergent Boundaries -
Iceland

Crust pulling apart normal faults

 Conservative (transform) boundaries
Movement of plates at a transform boundary can produce large,
shallow to intemediate deeps ( <300 km), earthquakes
San-Andreas fault (USA) is an example of a transform fault.
The Elastic Rebound Theory
 What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?

Explains how energy is

stored in rocks
Rocks bend until the
strength of the rock
is exceeded
Rupture occurs and
the rocks quickly
rebound to an
undeformed shape
Energy is released in
waves that radiate
outward from the
fault
Elastic Rebound
(((( ((( )))) )))
Elastic Rebound Theory

3 m offset

1906 San Francisco Earthquake

FAULT
 FAULTS
Fault : Earthquakes are caused by the
movement of Tectonic plates. The break
between Tectonic plates is called a fault

- A fracture in rock along which sliding has occurred

- Brittle deformation (shear strain)

Product of compression, tension or shear stres

The San Andreas Fault in
California
Identify the two fault blocks:
Hanging wall: block above fault plane

Footwall: block below fault plane

 Jenis-Jenis Fault
Normal fault:
Hanging wall drops relative to footwall

Reverse (or thrust) fault:

Hanging wall rises relative to footwal

Strike-slip fault:
Motion is horizontal

Parallel to fault strike

Normal Faulting
Normal Fault
Reverse Fault
Reverse Fault
Strike-Slip Fault
Strike Slip
Seismic Waves
 What are Seismic Waves?
Response of material to the arrival of
energy fronts released by rupture

Two types and behaviour of seismic waves

1. Body waves
Primary wave (P-wave)- Axial Compression oscillation
Secondary wave (S-wave) - Shear oscillation

2. Surface waves
Raleigh wave (R - wave) vertical oscillation
Love wave (L - wave) horizontal oscillation
Body Waves: P and S waves
Body waves
P or primary waves
fastest waves
travel through solids,
liquids, or gases
compressional wave,
material movement is
in the same direction
as wave movement
S or secondary waves
slower than P waves
travel through solids
only
shear waves - move
material
perpendicular to
wave movement
Surface Waves: R and L waves

Surface Waves
Travel just below or along the grounds surface
Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side
movement
Especially damaging to buildings
 Seismic Wave Types

Body Waves Surface Waves

Seismic Waves
 P and S waves

Smaller amplitude than surface (L) waves, but faster, P arrives first, then S, then L
P Waves
S Waves
Surface Waves
Two Types of Surface Waves
Seismic-wave velocities are faster in the upper mantle

Mohorovii discontinuity

Velocity increases w depth, waves bend back to surface.

Waves that travel via mantle arrive sooner at far destinations
Wave Velocities

Upper Mantle Fast

Asthenosphere
Slow

Lower Mantle Fast

 PENGUKURAN GEMPA
(Measuring Earthquakes)
 Seismographs
Seismographs or seismometer instruments that record
earthquake waves
Records the movement of Earth in relation to a stationary mass
on a rotating drum or magnetic tape
More than one type of seismograph is needed to record both
vertical and horizontal ground motion
When waves from an earthquake come into contact with a
seismograph, a weight suspended from a support will
remain motionless as Earth moves (providing a reference
point) and can draw a diagram showing Earths motion
Seismograms the electronically recorded ground motion
from a seismograph
 Seismographs
Earthquakes generate seismic waves
which can be detected with a
sensitive instrument called a
seismograph. Advances in
seismograph technology have
increased our understanding of both
earthquakes and the Earth itself.

Perhaps the earliest seismograph

was invented in China A.D. 136 by
a m an named Choko.
Chinese Seismoscope - first
earthquake sensor
Seismographs record earthquake events
Component Seismometer
How Seismographs Work
Vertical Component Seismometer
 A seismograph designed to
record vertical ground motion
 A seismograph designed to
record horizontal ground motion
Seismograms
 El-Centro Accelerograms (horizontal)

El Centro (USA) 1940, 180 Deg

4
3
Peak acceleration = 2.1m/s2
Acceleration.(m/s/s)

2
1

0
-1
-2
-3
-4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
time (s)
El Centro (USA) 1940, 270 Deg
4
3 Peak acceleration = 3.4m/s2
Acceleration.(m/s/s)

2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
time (s)
How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?

Magnitude
Related to Energy Release
Determined from Seismic Records

Intensity
How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer
 Earthquake Magnitude

Richter Scale
Estimate of earthquake size
based on the logarithm of the
amplitude of ground shaking

Charles Richter,
seismologist and nudist
 Earthquake Magnitude

Magnitude
Richter scale measures
total amount of energy
released by an
earthquake; independent
of intensity
Amplitude of the largest
wave produced by an
event is corrected for
distance and assigned a
value on an open-ended
logarithmic scale
Some Notable Earthquakes
 Intensity
How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer
Depends On:
Distance to Quake
Geology
Type of Building
Observer!
Varies from Place to Place
Mercalli Scale- 1 to 12
 Modified Mercalli Scale

Modified Mercalli Scale rates an

earthquakes intensity in terms of the
earthquakes effects at different locations
It has 12 steps, expressed as roman numerals
An earthquake that can barely be felt is rated
as a I
An earthquake that causes near total damage
is rated as a XII
The same earthquake can be given different
ratings at different locations
 Modified Mercalli Scale
I. Instrumental Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II. Feeble Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing.

III. Slight Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on the upper floors of buildings. Many do not recognize it as an
earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.

IV. Moderate Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed;
walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.
Dishes and windows rattle.

V. Rather Strong Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes and windows broken. Unstable objects overturned. Clocks
may stop.
VI. Strong Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors, walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken; books off
shelves; some heavy furniture moved or overturned; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.
VII. Very Strong Difficult to stand; furniture broken; damage negligible in building of good design and construction; slight to
moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some
chimneys broken. Noticed by persons driving motor cars.

VIII. Destructive Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse.
Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy
furniture moved.

IX. Ruinous General panic; damage considerable in specially designed structures, well designed frame structures thrown out of
plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.

X. Disastrous Some well built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundation. Rails
bent.
XI. Very Disastrous Few, if any masonry structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
XII. Catastrophic Total damage - Almost everything is destroyed. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air. The
ground moves in waves or ripples. Large amounts of rock may move.
SKALA KEKUATAN GEMPABUMI - MODIFIED MERCALLY INTENSITY (MMI)

I. Getaran tidak dirasakan kecuali dalam keadaan luar biasa oleh beberapa orang.
II. Getaran dirasakan oleh beberapa orang, benda-benda ringan yang digantung bergoyang
III. IGetaran dirasakan nyata dalam rumah, terasa getaran seakan-akan ada truk berlalu.
IV. Pada siang hari dirasakan oleh orang banyak dalam rumah, diluar oleh beberapa orang terbangun,
gerabah pecah, jendela/pintu gemerincing dan dinding berbunyi.
V. Getaran dirasakan oleh hampir semua penduduk, orang banyak terbangun, gerabah pecah, jendela
dan sbb pecah, barang-barang terpelanting, tiang-tiang dan lain-lain barang besar tampak
bergoyang, bandul lonceng dapat berhenti.
VI. Getaran dirasakan oleh semua penduduk kebanyakan semua terkejut dan lari keluar, plester
dinding jatuh dan cerobong asap pada pabrik rusak, kerusakan ringan.
VII. Tiap-tiap orang keluar rumah. Kerusakan ringan pada rumah-rumah dengan bangunan dan
kontruksi yang baik sedangkan pada bangunan dengan kontruksi kurang baik terjadi retak-retak
kemudian cerobong asap pecah. Terasa oleh orang yang naik kendaraan.
VIII.Kerusakan ringan pada bangunan dengan kontruksi yang kuat. Retak-retak pada bangunan yang
kuat, dinding dapat lepas dari rangka rumah, cerobong asap dari pabrik-pabrik dan monumen-
monumen roboh, air menjadi keruh.
IX. Kerusakan pada bangunan yang kuat rangka-rangka rumah menjadi tidak lurus banyak retak-retak
pada bangunan yang kuat. Rumah tampak agak berpindah dari pondamennya. Pipa-pipa dalam
rumah putus.
X. Bangunan dari kayu yang kuat rusak; rangka-rangka rumah lepas dari pondamennya; tanah
terbelah; rel melengkung; tanah longsor ditiap-tiap sungai dan ditanah-tanah yang curam.
XI. Bangunan-bangunan hanya sedikit yang tetap berdiri. Jembatan rusak, terjadi lembah. Pipa dalam
tanah tidak dapat dipakai sama sekali; tanah terbelah; rel melengkung sekali.
XII. Hancur sama sekali. Gelombang tampak pada permukaan tanah. Pemandangan menjadi gelap.
Benda-benda terlempar ke udara.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Index (1931)

1886 Charleston, SC earthquake

 SKALA RICHTER >< SKALA MMI
Skala Skala Intensitas Karakteristik Pengaruh Gempa di
Magnitude Modified Daerah Populasi
Richter Mercalli
< 3.4 I Hanya terdeteksi oleh Seismograf
3,5 4,2 II dan III Terasa oleh beberapa orang didalam bangunan
4,3 4,8 IV Terasa oleh orang banyak dan jendela bergetar
4,9 5,4 V Terasa oleh semua orang, piring-piring pecah dan pintu
bergoyang
5,5 6,1 VI dan VII Kerusakan ringan bangunan, lantai rekah dan bata
berjatuhan
6,2 6,9 VIII dan IX Kerusakan bangunan lebih parah, cerobong asap runtuh
dan rumah-rumah bergerak diatas fondasinya.

7,0 7,3 X Kerusakan serius (parah), jembatan-jembatan terpelintir,

dinding rekah-rekah, bangunan dari bata runtuh

7,4 7,9 XI Kehancuran berat, banyak bangunan runtuh

>8 XII Hancur total, gelombang terlihat di permukaan tanah
dan benda-benda terlempar ke udara