Cell Cycle,

Cell Division and Mitosis

1
 Phases of the Cell Cycle
The cell cycle consists of
Interphase normal cell activity

The mitotic phase cell division

INTERPHASE

Growth
G1 (DNA synthesis)

Growth
G2

2
 Cell Division
All cells are derived from pre-existing
cells
New cells are produced for reproduction,
growth and to replace damaged or old cells
Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and
eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, &
animals)

3
Functions of Cell Division
(a) Reproduction. An amoeba, a single-celled
eukaryote, is dividing into two cells. Each
new cell will be an individual organism
(b) Growth and development. This micrograph
shows a sand dollar embryo shortly after the
fertilized egg divided, forming two cells (LM)
(c) Tissue renewal. These dividing bone marrow
cells (arrow) will give rise to new blood cells
(LM).
4
 Cell Division
An integral part of the cell cycle
Results in genetically identical daughter
cells
Cells duplicate their genetic material
Before they divide, ensuring that each
daughter cell receives an exact copy of the
genetic material, DNA
5
 Cell Devision
DNA must be copied or
replicated before cell
division
Each new cell will then
have an identical copy of
the DNA

6
Identical Daughter Cells

Two
identical
daughter
cells

Parent Cell

7
 Prokaryotic Chromosome
The DNA of
prokaryotes (bacteria) is
one, circular
chromosome attached
to the inside of the cell
membrane

8
 Eukaryotic Chromosomes
All eukaryotic cells store
genetic information in
chromosomes
Each chromosome is
composed of a single, tightly
coiled DNA molecule
Chromosomes cant be seen
when cells arent dividing and
are called chromatin
9
9
 Chromatids
Duplicated
chromosomes are
called chromatids &
are held together by
the centromere

Called Sister Chromatids 10

 Chromosomes
Maternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)
2n = 6

Paternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)

Two sister chromatids

of one replicated
chromosome

Centromere

Two nonsister Pair of homologous

chromatids in chromosomes
a homologous pair (one from each set)

11
Homologues Chromosome
Look the same
Control the same traits
May code for different forms of each trait
Independent origin - each one was inherited from a
different parent

12
 Chromosome Duplication
In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the
chromosomes condense
Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, which
separate during cell division
0.5 m
A eukaryotic cell has multiple
chromosomes, one of which is
represented here. Before
duplication, each chromosome
has a single DNA molecule. Chromosome
duplication
(including DNA
synthesis)
Once duplicated, a chromosome
consists of two sister chromatids Centromere
connected at the centromere. Each
chromatid contains a copy of the
DNA molecule.

Sister
Separation chromatids
of sister
Mechanical processes separate chromatids
the sister chromatids into two
chromosomes and distribute
them to two daughter cells.
13
Centrometers Sister chromatids
 Chromosome Duplication
Because of duplication, each condensed chromosome
consists of 2 identical chromatids joined by a centromere.
Each duplicated chromosome contains 2 identical DNA
molecules (unless a mutation occurred), one in each
chromatid:
Non-sister
chromatids

Centromere Duplication

Sister Sister
chromatids chromatids
Two unduplicated
chromosomes Two duplicated chromosomes
14
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Structure of Chromosomes
The centromere is a constricted region of the chromosome
containing a specific DNA sequence, to which is bound 2 discs of
protein called kinetochores.
Kinetochores serve as points of attachment for microtubules that
move the chromosomes during cell division:
Metaphase chromosome

Centromere
region of
chromosome Kinetochore
Kinetochore
microtubules

Sister Chromatids
15
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Structure of Chromosomes
Diploid - A cell possessing two copies of each chromosome (human
body cells).
Homologous chromosomes are made up of sister chromatids joined
at the centromere.
Haploid - A cell possessing a single copy of each chromosome
(human sex cells).

16
Types of Cell Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves a single cell
dividing to make 2 new, identical daughter
cells
Mitosis & binary fission are examples of
asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg
& sperm) joining to make a new cell (zygote)
that is NOT identical to the original cells
Meiosis is an example of sexual reproduction
17
Cell Division in Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes such as Parent
bacteria divide into 2 cell
identical cells by the Chromosome
doubles
process of binary
fission
Single chromosome
Cell splits
makes a copy of itself
Cell wall forms between
the chromosomes
dividing the cell

2 identical daughter cells 18

 Phases of the Cell Cycle
Interphase
G1 - primary growth

S - genome replicated

(DNA replication)
G2 - secondary growth

M - mitosis
C - cytokinesis
19
Phases of the Cell Cycle

20
 Interphase
G1 - Cells undergo majority of growth
S - Each chromosome replicates
(synthesizes) to produce sister
chromatids (DNA replication)
Attached at centromere
Contains attachment site (kinetochore)
G2 - Chromosomes condense - Assemble
machinery for division such as
centrioles 21
Interphase - G1 Stage

1st growth stage after cell division

Cells mature by making more

cytoplasm & organelles

Cell carries on its normal

metabolic activities

22
 Interphase S Stage
Synthesis stage
DNA is copied or replicated

Two
identical
copies of
DNA

Original DNA
23
 Interphase G2 Stage
2nd Growth Stage
Occurs after DNA has been copied

All cell structures needed for division are

made (e.g. centrioles)

Both organelles & proteins are

synthesized

24
 DNA Copied

Cells prepare for

Cells Mature Division

Daughter
Cells
Cell Divides into Identical
cells
25
25
 Mitosis
Some haploid & diploid cells divide by mitosis.
Each new cell receives one copy of every chromosome
that was present in the original cell.
Produces 2 new cells that are both genetically identical to
the original cell.

DNA duplication
during interphase

Mitosis

Diploid Cell

26
 Mitosis
Division of the
nucleus
Also called
karyokinesis
Only occurs in
eukaryotes
four stages
Doesnt occur in
some cells such as
brain cells
27
 Four Mitotic Stages

Prophase
Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

28
28
 Early Prophase
Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form
visible chromosomes
Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in
cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)

Nucleolus Cytoplasm

Nuclear Membrane
Chromosomes

29
 Late Prophase
Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken
down
Chromosomes continue condensing & are
clearly visible
Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to
the centromere of each chromosome
Spindle finishes forming between the poles
of the cell
30
 Late Prophase

Chromosomes

Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated 31

 Spindle Fiber attached to
Chromosome

Kinetochore Fiber

Chromosome 32
Review of Prophase

33
 Spindle Fibers
The mitotic spindle form from the
microtubules in plants and centrioles in
animal cells
Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell
to the opposite pole
Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to
the centromere of the chromosome to which
they attach
Asters are short fibers radiating from
centrioles
34
The Spindle

35
35
 Metaphase
Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers,
move to the center of the cell
Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator

Equator of Cell

Pole of the
Cell

36
 Metaphase

Asters at the
poles

Spindle Chromosomes
Fibers lined at the
Equator

37
 Metaphase

Aster

Chromosomes at Equator
38
Metaphase

39
 Anaphase

Occurs rapidly
Sister chromatids
are pulled apart to
opposite poles of
the cell by
kinetochore fibers

40
 Anaphase

Sister
Chromatids
being
separated

41
Anaphase

42
 Telophase
Sister chromatids at opposite poles
Spindle disassembles
Nuclear envelope forms around each set of
sister chromatids
Nucleolus reappears
CYTOKINESIS occurs
Chromosomes reappear as chromatin

43
Comparison of Anaphase & Telophase

44
44
 Mitosis in a plant cell
Nucleus Chromatine Chromosome
Nucleolus condensing

Metaphase. The
1 Prophase. 2 Prometaphase. 3 4 Anaphase. The 5 Telophase. Daughter
spindle is complete,
The chromatin We now see discrete chromatids of each nuclei are forming.
and the chromosomes,
is condensing. chromosomes; each chromosome have Meanwhile, cytokinesis
attached to microtubules
The nucleolus is consists of two separated, and the has started: The cell
at their kinetochores,
beginning to identical sister daughter chromosomes plate, which will
are all at the metaphase
disappear. chromatids. Later are moving to the ends divided the cytoplasm
plate.
Although not in prometaphase, the of cell as their in two, is growing
yet visible nuclear envelop will kinetochore toward the perimeter
in the micrograph, fragment. microtubles shorten. of the parent cell.
the mitotic spindle is
staring to from.

45
 Cytokinesis
Means division of the cytoplasm
Division of cell into two, identical halves

called daughter cells

In plant cells, cell plate forms at the

equator to divide cell

In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to

split cell

46
 Cytokinesis In Animal And
Plant Cells

100 m
Cleavage furrow Vesicles Wall of 1 m
forming patent cell Cell plate
cell plate New cell wall

Contractile ring of Daughter cells

microfilaments
Daughter cells
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)
47
 Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow in Cell plate in animal
animal cell cell

48
48
 Daughter Cells of Mitosis
Have the same number of chromosomes as
each other and as the parent cell from which
they were formed
Identical to each other, but smaller than
parent cell
Must grow in size to become mature cells
(G1 of Interphase)

49
Identical Daughter Cells

Chromosome number the same, but cells smaller than

parent cell
50
 Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

G2 OF INTERPHASE PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE

Centrosomes Aster Fragments
(with centriole pairs) Chromatin Early mitotic Kinetochore
spindle Centromere of nuclear
(duplicated) Nonkinetochore
envelope
microtubules

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore

envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule
51
 Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Metaphase
plate Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow forming

Nuclear
envelope
Spindle Centrosome at Daughter forming
one spindle pole chromosomes
52
 G2 of Interphase
A nuclear envelope bounds the
nucleus.
The nucleus contains one or more
nucleoli (singular, nucleolus).
Two centrosomes have formed by
replication of a single centrosome.
In animal cells, each centrosome
features two centrioles. G2 OF INTERPHASE
Centrosomes
Chromosomes, duplicated during S Chromatin
(with centriole pairs)
phase, cannot be seen individually (duplicated)
because they have not yet condensed.

The light micrographs show dividing lung

cells from a newt, which has 22
hromosomes in its somatic cells
(chromosomes appear blue, microtubules
green, intermediate filaments red). For Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma
simplicity, the drawings show only four envelope membrane
chromosomes. 53
 Prophase
The chromatin fibers become more
tightly coiled, condensing into discrete
chromosomes observable with a light
microscope.
The nucleoli disappear.
Each duplicated chromosome appears
as two identical sister chromatids joined
PROPHASE
together.
Early mitotic Aster
The mitotic spindle begins to form. spindle Centromere
It is composed of the centrosomes and
the microtubules that extend from them.
The radial arrays of shorter
microtubules that extend from the
centrosomes are called asters (stars).
The centrosomes move away from each
other, apparently propelled by the Chromosome, consisting
lengthening microtubules between them. of two sister chromatids
54
Metaphase
Metaphase is the longest stage of
mitosis, lasting about 20 minutes.
The centrosomes are now at
opposite ends of the cell.
The chromosomes convene on the
metaphase plate, an imaginary
METAPHASE
plane that is equidistant between
the spindles two poles. The Metaphase
plate
chromosomes centromeres lie on
the metaphase plate.
For each chromosome, the
kinetochores of the sister
chromatids are attached to
kinetochore microtubules coming
from opposite poles.
The entire apparatus of
microtubules is called the spindle
Spindle Centrosome at
because of its shape. one spindle pole

55
 The Mitotic Spindle
The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle
microtubules, and the asters
The apparatus of microtubules controls
chromosome movement during mitosis
The centrosome replicates, forming two
centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the
cell
Assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the
centrosome, the microtubule organizing center
An aster (a radial array of short microtubules)
extends from each centrosome
56
 The Mitotic Spindle
Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of
chromosomes and move the chromosomes to the metaphase
plate
In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the
kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell
Aster
Sister Centrosome
Microtubules Chromosomes chromatids Metaphase
plate
Kineto-
chores

Overlapping
nonkinetochore Kinetochore
microtubules microtubules
Centrosome 1 m 0.5 m
57
 Anaphase
Anaphase is the shortest stage of mitosis,
lasting only a few minutes.
Anaphase begins when the two sister
chromatids of each pair suddenly part.
Each chromatid thus becomes a full-
fledged chromosome.
The two liberated chromosomes begin
ANAPHASE
moving toward opposite ends of the cell, as
their kinetochore microtubules shorten.
Because these microtubules are attached at the
centromere region, the chromosomes move
centromere first (at about 1 m/min).
The cell elongates as the non kinetochore
microtubules lengthen.
By the end of anaphase, the two ends of
the cell have equivalentand complete Daughter
chromosomes
collections of chromosomes.
58
 Telophase
Two daughter nuclei begin to
form in the cell.
Nuclear envelopes arise from
the fragments of the parent
cells nuclear envelope and
other portions of the TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

endomembrane system. Cleavage

furrow
Nucleolus
forming
The chromosomes become
less condensed.
Mitosis, the division of one
nucleus into two genetically Nuclear
identical nuclei, is now envelope
forming
complete.
59
 Meiosis
Formation of Gametes
(Eggs & Sperm)

60
 Meiosis
1. Reduction in amount of genetic material in the daughter
cell
2. A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells
each with half number of chromosome of the parent
cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores
3. The process by which the nucleus divides in all sexually
reproducing organisms during the production of spores
and gametes
4. The process by which the cell divides producing
daughter cell that have a single set of chromosomes and
are called haploid as opposed to diploid cells with two
sets of chromosome
61
 Facts About Meiosis
Preceded by interphase which includes
chromosome replication
Two meiotic divisions:
1. Meiosis I
2. Meiosis II

(Reduction- division)
Original cell is diploid (2n)
Four daughter cells produced that are
monoploid (1 n)
62
 Facts About Meiosis
Only diploid cells can divide by meiosis.
Prior to meiosis I, DNA replication occurs.
During meiosis, there will be two nuclear
divisions, and the result will be four haploid
nuclei.
No replication of DNA occurs between
meiosis I and meiosis II.

63
 Facts About Meiosis
Daughter cells contain half the number
of chromosomes as the original cell
Produces gametes (eggs & sperm)

Occurs in the testes in males

(Spermatogenesis)
Occurs in the ovaries in females

(Oogenesis)
64
 Meiosis
It is the fundamental basis of sexual
reproduction
Two haploid (1n) gametes are brought
together through fertilization to form a
diploid (2n) zygote

65
 Fertilization

2n = 6

1n =3

Putting it all together

66
 Stages of Meiosis
Begins with Interphase
Chromosomes replicate

Meiosis I Meiosis II
Prophase I Prophase II
Metaphase I Metaphase II
Anaphase I Anaphase II
Telophase I Telophase II

67
Replication of Chromosomes
Replication is the
process of
duplicating a Occurs in
chromosome Interphase
Occurs prior to
division
Replicated copies
are called sister
chromatids
Held together at
centromere
68
A Replicated Chromosome

Gene X

Homologs Sister
(same genes, Chromatids
different alleles) (same genes,
same alleles)

Homologs separate in meiosis I and therefore

different alleles separate.
69
 Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes
Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number by
half
Fertilization then restores the 2n number
from mom from dad child

too
much!

meiosis reduces
genetic content
The right
number!
70
 Meiosis:
Two Part Cell Division
Sister
chromatids
Homologs
separate separate

Meiosis Meiosis
I II

Diploid
Haploid
Haploid
71
 Meiosis I:
Reduction Division

Spindle
Nucleus
fibers Nuclear
envelope
Early Prophase I Metaphase I
(Chromosome
Late
Prophase I Telophase I
number doubled) Anaphase I
72
 Prophase I

Early prophase Late prophase

Homologs pair. Chromosomes condense.
Crossing over Spindle forms.
occurs. Nuclear envelope fragments.

73
 Tetrads Form
in Prophase I
Homologous chromosomes Join to form a
(each with sister chromatids) TETRAD

Called Synapsis
74
 Crossing-Over
Homologous
chromosomes in a
tetrad cross over
each other
Pieces of
chromosomes or
genes are
exchanged
Produces Genetic
recombination in
the offspring
75
Homologous Chromosomes
During Crossing-Over

76
 Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of

different gamete types produced by independent
assortment 77
Metaphase I

Homologous pairs of
chromosomes align
along the equator of
the cell

78
Anaphase I

Homologs separate and move

to opposite poles.

Sister chromatids remain

attached at their centromers.

79
Telophase I

Nuclear envelopes reassemble.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell into two.

80
 Meiosis II
Only one homolog of each
Gene X
chromosome is present in the
cell.
Sister chromatids carry
identical genetic
information.

Meiosis II produces gametes with one copy of

each chromosome and thus one copy of each
gene.
81
 Meiosis II

Prophase II
Metaphase II Telophase II
4 Identical
Anaphase II
haploid cells
82
Prophase II

Nuclear envelope
fragments.

Spindle forms.

83
Metaphase II

Chromosomes align
along equator of cell.

84
 Anaphase II
Equator

Pole

Sister chromatids
separate and move to
opposite poles.

85
Telophase II
Nuclear envelope
assembles.

Chromosomes
decondense.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell

into two.
86
Results of Meiosis
Gametes (egg & sperm) form

Four haploid cells with one

copy of each chromosome

One allele of each gene

Different combinations of
alleles for different genes along
the chromosome

87
 Gametogenesis
Oogenesis or Spermatogenesis

88
 Spermatogenesis
Occurs in the testes
Two divisions
produce 4 spermatids
Spermatids mature
into sperm
Men produce about
250,000,000 sperm
per day

89
Spermatogenesis in the
Testes
Spermatid

90
91
91
 Oogenesis
Occurs in the ovaries
Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies that
die and 1 egg
Polar bodies die because of unequal division
of cytoplasm
Immature egg called oocyte
Starting at puberty, one oocyte matures into
an ovum (egg) every 28 days
92
Oogenesis in the Ovaries

93
93
 Oogenesis
First polar body
may divide a
(haploid) X
a Polar
X a
bodies
X
die
a X
Mitosis Meiosis I Meiosis II
A X (if fertilization
Oogonium occurs)
A

(diploid) Primary X
oocyte A X Ovum (egg) Mature
(diploid)
Secondary A egg
oocyte X

(haploid) Second
polar body
(haploid) 94
 Mitosis & Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Functions Function
Asexual
Sexual reproduction
reproduction
Occurs only in cells
Growth, repair
that give rise to sperm
Occurs throughout and eggs
plant
Produces variable
Produces clones
offspring
Diploid parents and
offspring Diploid parents,
haploid offspring 95
 Mitosis & Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Number of divisions 1 2
Number of daughter cells 2 4
Genetically identical? Yes No
Chromosome number Same as parent Half of parent

Where Somatic cells Germ cells

When Throughout life At sexual maturity
Growth and
Role Sexual reproduction
repair
96
 Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis
Two diploid cells produced
Each identical to parent
Meiosis
Four haploid cells produced
Differ from parent and one another

97