Critical Thinking: Why Its Important

The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn the

basics of critical thinking and be able to identify
common barriers to effective critical thought.
 Critical thinking: a vital skill
2

Critical thinking provides us with a crucial set of

skills we need to make decisions and resolve issues
that arise in our everyday lives.

Critical thinking, like logic, requires learning how to

think rather than simply what to think. The word critical
is derived from the Greek word kritikos, which means
discernment, the ability to judge, or decision
making.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Logic
3

Logic is a crucial part of critical thinking, and requires

good analytical skills. Logic is defined as the study of
the methods and principles used in distinguishing
correct (good) arguments from incorrect (bad)
arguments.

Critical thinking requires applying the rules of logic

as well as gathering evidence surrounding an issue,
evaluating it, and coming up with a plan of action.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Logic vs. opinion
4

In contrast to arguments based on logic, arguments

based on opinion are defined as beliefs based solely
on personal feelings rather than reason or facts.

While we are all entitled to our opinions, arguments

based solely on opinion are not necessarily
reasonable, and may encourage us to make poor
choices or act in ways we may later regret.
Sometimes uninformed opinions can be harmful,
both to us and to society.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Cognitive development in college
students
5

Educational researcher William Perry, Jr. (1913-1998)

identified several stages of cognitive development in
college students. Later researchers simplified his
findings into three separate developmental stages:
dualism, relativism, and commitment.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Stage one: dualism
6

Dualism is the first stage of cognitive development and

is common among freshmen and many sophomores.
It involves the assimilation of knowledge and experience
in a simple, dualistic way, viewing issues as either right
or wrong. Dualistic thinkers see knowledge as outside
themselves and look to authority figures for answers.
When researching an issue, dualistic students often
exhibit confirmation bias, which involves only seeking
out evidence that supports their views, and dismissing or
ignoring contradictory evidence.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Stage two: relativism
7

Rather than accepting that ambiguity may be

unavoidable, relativistic thinkers reject the dualistic
viewpoint and move to the opposite extreme, arguing
that all truth is relative or just a matter of opinion. People
at this stage believe that stating ones opinion is the
proper form of communication, and they look down on
challenging others opinions as judgmental and even
disrespectful. Despite their outward relativism, however,
they still look to authority figures, such as professors, to
confirm their opinions.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Stage three: commitment
8

As students mature, they come to the realization that not

all thinking is equally valid. Not only can authority figures
be mistaken, but a certain level of uncertainty and
ambiguity is unavoidable. When students at this stage
experience uncertainty, they are now able to make
decisions and commit to particular positions on the
basis of reason and the best evidence available. At the
same time, as independent thinkers they are open to
challenge and are flexible enough to change their
positions as new evidence becomes available.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Characteristics of
a good critical thinker
9

Critical thinking is not a single skill. Rather, it is a collection

of skills that enhance and reinforce each other. These
skills include:
Analytical skillsyour ability to analyze and provide

logical support for your beliefs

Communication and literacy skillsyour ability to

listen, speak, and write effectively, and the awareness of

your own communication style
Research and inquiry skillsyour ability to gather,
evaluate and synthesize supporting evidence

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Characteristics of
a good critical thinker (continued)
10

Flexibility and tolerance of ambiguitythe ability to

flexibly adapt to changing situations and to recognize
the inherent ambiguity of human existence
Open-minded skepticismthe ability to overcome
personal prejudices and biases and critically examine all
sides of an issue before coming to a decision; often this
involves the method of doubt, first proposed by French
philosopher Ren Descartes (1596-1650), which
involves setting aside our preconceptions and adopting
a default position of skepticism

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

11

Ren Descartes

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Characteristics of
a good critical thinker (continued)
12

Creative problem solving skillsthe ability to view

problems from multiple perspectives and to come up
with original solutions to complex problems
Attentiveness, mindfulness, and curiositythe ability
to remain curious and attentive to the world, and to
respect diversity and consider multiple opinions
Collaborative learning skillsthe ability to recognize
and anticipate the reactions of others, and a willingness
to collaborate with others to share and gain knowledge

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

13

Contrasting responses to Hurricane Katrina in

2005 and the 2010 earthquake in Haiti
2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
14

The iPod

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Critical thinking and self-development
15

Critical thinking is not just about abstract thought. It is also

about self-improvement and your whole development as a
person. Self examination is an important part of this
process. Good critical thinkers take charge of their lives
and choices. By contrast, poor critical thinkers allow
themselves to be controlled by circumstances and often
deal ineffectively with problems, which often results in
depression, anger, or other emotional problems.
Developing a rational life plan is an effective way of
avoiding these problems.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

16

Age differences in depression

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

17

A life plan is like a flight plan

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Other features of good critical thinkers
18

Effective critical thinkers exhibit other traits and

characteristics. These include:
The ability to challenge social injustices, as well as being
able to respond intelligently and thoughtfully to challenges
to our own belief systems
The cultivation of high self-esteem, proactiveness, and
self-direction, traits common in autonomous critical thinking
Involvement in democratic politics and the ability to
critically analyze political actors and issues

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

19

Differences in mens and

womens opinions
2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
20

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

21

Tiananmen Square, China

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Barriers to effective critical thinking
22

Effective critical thinking involves sharpening our

resistance to irrational or narrow-minded arguments.
Recognizing these irrational or narrow-minded
approaches can sharpen our critical thinking skills and
help devise effective strategies to counter them.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 The three-tiered model of thinking
23

The processes used in critical thinking can be broken

down into three tiers, or levels: experience,
interpretation, and analysis.
Experience, the foundational level of critical thinking,
involves firsthand experience, as well as empirical facts
derived from other sources
Interpretation involves trying to make sense of our
experiences
Analysis involves raising our level of thinking and critically
analyzing our interpretations of an experience

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

24

The three levels of thinking

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Resistance
25

None of us likes to be wrong, and when we are

challenged, we often exhibit resistance, which is
defined as the use of immature defense mechanisms
that are rigid, impulsive, maladaptive, and
nonanalytical. Resistance acts as a barrier to
effective critical thinking.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

26

Resistance

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Types of resistance
27

There are several types of resistance; they include

avoidance, anger, clichs, denial, ignorance, conformity,
struggling, and distractions.
Avoidance involves escaping or intentionally avoiding

certain people and situations

Anger involves responding to challenges with threatening

physical or verbal cues

Clichs are oft-repeated statements that sidetrack the real

issues and prevent effective critical thought

Denial involves ignoring or refuting challenging viewpoints

or evidence
2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Types of resistance (continued)
28

Ignorance is a type of resistance where we intentionally

avoid learning about a particular issue
Conformity involves going along with group or peer
viewpoints even when you disagree with them
Struggling involves getting so caught up in the minute
details of an issue that nothing gets accomplished
Distractions are hindrances that prevent clear thinking
and effective critical analysis

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

29

According to Buddhist teaching, mental hindrances like

distractions keep us from clear understanding.
2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
30

Stephen Hawking

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Narrow-mindedness
31

Like resistance, narrow-mindedness and rigid beliefs,

such as absolutism, egocentrism, fear of challenge,
ethnocentrism and anthropocentrism all act as barriers to
effective critical thinking.
Absolutism is a perspective that sees the world in black

and white absolutes

Egocentrism is a perspective that sees the self as the
center of all things
Fear of Challenge involves reluctance to stand up to
others who we believe may have different opinions

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Narrow-mindedness (continued)
32

Ethnocentrism is an uncritical and unjustified belief in the

inherent superiority of ones own group or culture
Anthropocentrism is a belief that humans are the central
or the most significant entity in the universe

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

33

Brandon Mayfield

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Rationalization and doublethink
34

When we are faced with difficult choices or decisions, we

often engage in rationalization to justify our decisions
made on the basis of personal opinion or bias.

Because rationalization involves ignoring competing

claims, people who engage in it often get caught up in
doublethink, defined as holding two contradictory views, or
double standards, at the same time, and believing both to
be true.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

35

U.S. median income by race,

ethnicity, and gender, 2008
2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
36

Perspectives on affirmative
action in college admissions
2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Cognitive and social dissonance
37

We are most likely to modify or critically analyze our views

when we encounter cognitive or social dissonance, which
occurs when we encounter new ideas or social behavior
that contradicts or conflicts with our worldviews.

Evidence suggests that when people change their

behavior, changes in their beliefs follow.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Conclusions
38

As explored in the previous slides, effective critical thinking

requires development of a collection of skills, including
attentiveness; open-mindedness; and strong
communication, analytical, research, and problem-solving
skills.

Critical thinkers also need to be aware of barriers to

effective critical thinking, such as habitual use of
resistance, and different types of narrow-mindedness.

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

39

Milgram experiment

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

40

Abuse at Abu Ghraib prison, Iraq

2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.