Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, a plan for a loose union of the states under the authority of the Congress. Without the power to tax or regulate trade, the government depended on state contributions for funding. Many states restricted British imports, but they did not all impose the same duties, or taxes, on foreign goods. The British took their goods to the states with the lowest taxes. From there they moved those products to the other states. The states tried to prevent the British from exploiting the different trade laws by levying tariffs on British goods that crossed state lines. The Congress could not address the problem because it had no power to regulate commerce. Each state was beginning to act independently, which threatened the unity of the new nation. Before the war, many American merchants and planters had borrowed money from British lenders. The United States had agreed that the states would let the British lenders sue in American courts to recover their debts. Many states courts often sided with the American debtors. In retaliation, British forces continued to occupy frontier posts despite a provision in the treaty calling for them to leave American soil. The Congress had no power to impose taxes to raise the money for a financial settlement with Britain, or to raise an army to enforce the treaty. American dealings with Spain also showed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. The United States wanted to claim land in North America that Spain also claimed. The Congresss limited power prevented a diplomatic solution. Success of Articles Of Confederation
In addition to organizing western
settlement, the Congress tried to promote trade with other nations, including Holland, Prussia, and Sweden, through new treaties. Section 2 People who supported a stronger central government became known as nationalists. Influential nationalists included Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, John Adams, James Madison, and the financier Robert Morris. Virginia Plan The Virginia delegation brought a detailed planmostly the work of James Madisonfor a new national government. The Virginia Plan recommended scrapping the Articles of Confederation and creating a new national government with the power to make laws binding upon the states and to raise money through taxes. The Virginia Plan proposed that the government be divided into legislative, executive, and judicial branches, and that the legislature, or Congress, be divided into two houses. The voters in each state would elect members of the first house. Members of the second house would be nominated by the state governments, but actually elected by the first house. The Virginia Plan drew sharp reactions. The delegates accepted the idea of dividing the government into three branches, but the smaller states strongly opposed any changes that would base representation on population. They feared that the larger states would outvote them. William Paterson, a New Jersey delegate, offered a counterproposal that came to be called the New Jersey Plan. The plan modified the Articles of Confederation instead of abandoning them. It called for Congress to have a single house in which each state was equally represented and gave Congress the power to raise taxes and regulate trade. The compromise the committee worked out was based on a proposal from Roger Sherman of Connecticut. Called the Connecticut Compromise, or the Great Compromise, it proposed that in one house of Congressthe House of Representativesrepresentation would be based on population. In the other housethe Senatethe states would have equal representation. Voters would elect the representatives, but the state legislatures would choose the senators. The new Constitution was based on the idea of popular sovereignty, or rule by the people. Rather than a direct democracy, it created a system of government in which elected officials represented the voice of the people. The new Constitution also established federalism, a system that divided power between the federal, or national, government and state governments. In addition to separating the powers of the government, the delegates to the convention created a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. Within this system, each branch would have some ability to limit the power of the other branches. Under the Constitution, the presidentas head of the executive branch was given far-reaching powers. The president would be commander in chief of the armed forces. The president could also propose legislation, appoint judges, put down rebellions, and veto , or reject, acts of Congress. Although the president could veto acts of Congress, the legislative branch would have the power to override a presidential veto with a two-thirds vote in both houses. The Senate would have to approve or reject presidential appointments to the executive branch, as well as any treaties with foreign nations. Congress could even impeach, or formally accuse of misconduct, and remove the president or other high officials from office. Members of the judicial branch would hear all cases arising under federal law and the Constitution. The powers of the judiciary would be balanced by the other two branches. The president would have the power to nominate members of the judiciary, but the Senate would have to confirm such nominations. Finally, Congress would have the power to remove federal judges and Supreme Court justices. Section 3 As soon as the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia ended, delegates rushed home to begin the campaign for ratification. Each state would hold a convention to vote on the new Constitution. Nine states had to vote for the Constitution to put it into effect. As Americans learned about the new plan of government, they began to argue over whether it should be ratified. Federalists Supporters of the Constitution called themselves Federalists. It emphasized that the Constitution would create a federal system. Federalists believed that power should be divided between a central government and state governments. Some Federalists were large landowners who wanted the property protection a strong central government could provide. Supporters also included merchants and artisans living in large coastal cities. They believed that an effective federal government that could impose taxes on foreign goods would help their businesses. Many farmers who lived near the coast or along rivers that led to the coast also supported the Constitution, as did farmers who shipped goods across state borders. These farmers depended on trade for their livelihood and wanted a strong central government that could regulate trade consistently. Anti- Federalists Opponents of the Constitution were called Anti-Federalistsa misleading name, as they were not against federalism. They accepted the need for a national government, but the real issue for them was whether the national government or the state governments would be supreme. The Federalists arguments for ratification were summarized in The Federalista collection of 85 essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. The essays explained the new framework of government created by the Constitution and why it was needed. The first state conventions for ratification took place in December 1787 and January 1788. Although Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut all quickly ratified the Constitution, the most important battles still lay ahead. In Massachusetts, Anti-Federalists held a clear majority when the convention met in January 1788. Among them were John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who both had signed the Declaration of Independence. Federalists moved quickly to meet Adamss objections to the Constitution. Specifically, Federalists promised to attach a bill of rightsguarantees of fundamental individual rightsto the Constitution once it was ratified, although they contended it was not necessary: By July 1788, all the states except Rhode Island and North Carolina had ratified the Constitution. The new government could be launched without their ratification votes. In mid-September 1788, the Congress set up a timetable for the election of the new government. It chose March 4, 1789, as the date for the first meeting of the new Congress. In New York, the majority of the convention members were Anti-Federalists. The Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, managed to delay the final vote until news arrived that New Hampshire and Virginia had both voted for the Constitution. Soon after ratification by New Hampshire and Virginia, delegates from New York City warned that the city would secede from the state of New York if the new Constitution were not ratified. This was effective. George Washington was elected unanimously by the Electoral College to be the first president under the new Constitution.