HINDU

ARCHITECTURE
 HINDU ARCHITECTURE

The major powers of North-West and South-Central India collapsed simultaneously in

about 220 A.D and dismembered into a number of provincial kingdoms such as:

The Yaudehas and Malavas in Rajasthan

The Nagas, Uccakalpas and Lichhavis in central and eastern India
The Chalukayans, Vakatakas and Sakas shared the former Andhra country
The Pandyas controlled the Southern tip
The Gangas and Kadambas held the central-southern area
The Pallavas held the south eastern coast

A number of dynasties (Sakas, Yaudehas, Vakatakas and maybe even the Pallavas) were
descendants of various tribes that had entered India through the North West. There was
now an economic resurgence due to accumulated wealth through trade with the Romans,
Arabs and the south-eastern nations of Bali, Sumatra and Java. The rulers of these
immigrant dynasties were keen to identify themselves completely with India.

The feudal kings were beginning to adopt Sanskrit as their official court language. In this
time of prosperity the Brahmins attitude was more appealing than the message of
Buddhism.
The Tamil speaking kingdoms were at constant and fierce war with each other. However,
they were now organising and uniting themselves into a maritime power to acquire
wealth through overseas trade. With this growing prosperity they were attracted to the
cultured and courtly ways of the north. The beginning of a nationwide revival of
Brahminism popularly referred to as Hinduism was taking root.

CHANDRAGUPTA

Chandragupta, a feudal Raja of ancient Magadha, capitalised on his

marriage to a Lichhavi princess in 320 A.D and in his reign of a decade he became the lord
of Bihar, parts of Bengal and the Ganges plain and founded the dynasty of the Guptas.
This dynasty heralded in The Golden Age of India. Chandraguptas son, Samudragupta,
conquered most of northern India and made the rulers of Assam, Nepal, Kanauj and
Punjab his tributaries. The Sakas of western India were subdued by his son Chandragupta
II (Vikramaditya) the Great who raided as far as Afghanistan. He brought the Vakatakas
and the Kadambas into his fold through matrimonial alliances.

By the beginning of the 5th century A.D, though it was difficult to

establish a centralised authority, the cultural conquest of India by the Guptas was
effective. It was based on the secular and liberal traditions of an aristocratic upper class
that were fond of refined manners, poetry, art and conversation in Sanskrit.
 MAP OF THE
GUPTA DYNASTY
Showing areas
conquered by
Chandragupta I,
Samudragupta and
Chandragupta II who
was also called
Vikramaditya
 HINDU REVIVAL UNDER THE RULE OF CHANDRAGUPTA II WAS SEEKING AN
ARCHITECTURAL REPRESENTATION.

EARLY HINDU SHRINES

The only edifice of the Aryan Hindu required so far had been an altar roofed or unroofed.
But now an anthropomorphic conception of a deity in the form of a statue gradually became
part of Hindu worship.

The earliest Hindu shrine was a cell to house an image. Other rituals were performed in the
open air. The oldest Hindu shrines are a group of caves carved out of a mountain side at
Udaygiri near Sanchi. The interior is a plain rectangular room or garbha-griha (womb-
house) in which the image was installed. The entrance is through a small portico.

TEMPLES AT TIGAWA AND SANCHI

The earliest structural Hindu temples are at Sanchi and Tigawa and are based on the caves
shrines of Udaygiri.

The Sanchi temple consists of a dark hollow cube of jointed stone blocks for walls support a
roof of flat stone slabs. An aesthetic system had not yet been developed to embellish the
outer surface. The pillars of the entrance portico were stunted versions of the Asoka
columns with an inverted bell capital and animal imagery.
 The 12 feet wide portico is
supported by 4 columns erected in
pairs at either end to allow
passageway for the entrance.

The temple at Tigawa is built on the

same plan but the shafts of the
columns of the portico were no
longer octagonal like those of
Asokas period but instead square in
plan and ornamented with
sculptures of gods and goddesses in
flamboyant postures. This marks the
end of the stereotyped inverted bell
shaped capital used for more than
600 years since Asokas time.
In the south a group of craftsmen were commissioned by their Chalukyan overlords in
about 600 A.D to build shrines for the Aryan Gods at their capital city of Aihole, Karnataka.
These craftsmen were familiar with Buddhist paraphernalia and also well versed in the
traditions of Gupta sculpture but did not have any visual idea or experience in the building
of free standing monuments. The Hindu priest also only had a vague idea that his temple
should be
AN IMPRESSIVE STRUCTURE WHERE A GRAVEN IMAGE OF GOD COULD BE INSTALLED,
CONSECRATED AND WORSHIPPED.
The builders picked the most prestigious timber structure, the Santhagar or Assembly Hall
of the village council, as their model.

THE LAD KHAN AT AIHOLE

They set about the task of adapting the timber structural form to stone. The Lad Khan
temple at Aihole is a 50 feet square hall roofed with sloping stone slabs that simulate a
thatch roof. To hold up the roof there is an inner double row of massive stone columns. The
peripheral columns are reduced to pilasters as the load of the roof is taken by the wall of
stone blocks piled one over the other without binding material.
In the middle of the rear wall of the main hall a square portion was partitioned off to
create a garbhagriha. The peripheral timber bench with an inclined back (asana) was
dispensed with in the main hall but reproduced in stone in the portico and serves the dual
function of a baluster and a resting place. This element was destined to become a major
design element in the hands of the Hindu architect in the central and western regions of
the country.

The projecting edges of

the roof slabs were
rounded off to imitate
the original thatch
overhang. Even the
bamboo ribs holding
the thatch down were
reproduced as bulky
semi cylinders in stone.
However to the Hindu
mind this was far from
the perfect shrine.
THE LAD KHAN TEMPLE
AT AIHOLE

which was modeled after

the timber structure of the
Assembly hall

Constructed around 450

A.D.

Material: stone
 THE DURGA TEMPLE, AIHOLE
In the Durga temple the builders tried to adapt the plan of the Buddhist chaitya hall to
Hindu worship. The inner colonnaded nave of the chaitya hall was divided into an ante
chamber and a sanctuary by putting a platform near the apsidal end. The aisles around
became an open pradakshina path and the roof was made again of sloping stone slabs.
However, this too failed to win the approval of the Hindus.
They were interpreting the Hindu concept of a temple as a House of God rather too
literally as just a house and no more. What was missing was an architectonic form that
would symbolise and new faith and convert the house into a virtual monument.
BRICK TEMPLE OF BHITARGAON
Bricklayers were called upon to build temples for the Brahmins. The
temple at Bhitargaon is built upon a substantial plinth and rises about 40 feet high. It uses
brick domes and vaults for its main cell and vestibule. The surfaces were richly moulded
and ascend to a barrel vaulted top.
The silhouette of this temple is rather ponderous and ungainly but it did
manage to convey a sense of monumentality by its sheer bulk and height. The brick layers
treated the facade much like stone carvers by cutting and embossing sculptural patterns
into the masonry.
Above: plan of the
Durga temple at Aihole
and capital of Lad Khan

Left: Durga temple at

Aihole

Right: Brick temple at

Bhitargaon
 DURGA TEMPLE AT
AIHOLE

which was modeled after

the Buddhist Chaitya hall

Material: stone
 EVOLUTION OF THE SHIKARA AND THE DASAVATARA TEMPLE AT DEOGARH
Many variations of the parabolic profiled Shikara adorn all Hindu places of worship in the
north.
It was inspired maybe from the traditional mythological abode of the gods (the Himalayas) or
from primitive megaliths or toda churches of central India or from the shape of the traditional
Indian wooden ratha or from a rural Aryan form. However the designer came up with a mixture
of geometry and mythological symbolism.
This form is a four sided pyramid with parabolic instead of straight edges. Its curvilinear shape
strongly suggests its derivation from a bamboo construction most likely that of four bamboos
rising from a square base held together at a certain height above the middle of the square. This
parabolic form was to be mounted over the roof of the garbhagriha.

The earliest surviving form is a temple constructed in stone at Deogarh in central India.
The Sanchi or Tigawa type shrine was the starting point. This was placed on a wide square
platform inspired by the sacrificial altars of the vedic Aryans. For symmetry a false portico was
added to the other 3 blank walls. The flat roof was surmounted by the convex profiled pyramid
built in horizontal courses.
At the apex was mounted a large circular
disc of stone into the rim of which was
inscribed vertical edges like in an amlaka
(a fruit that plays a symbolic role in various
Hindu rituals). This was mounted by a
metal pinnacle of kalasa and this entire
composition came to be known as the
Shikara (literally mountain peak).

At last an acceptable new and

distinguished architectonic symbol for the
Hindu temple had been evolved. The
Shikara was destined to become the
distinctive feature of the North Indian
temple and the most prominent feature of
the Indo Aryan temple style. This style was
to give rise to many regional styles of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Khajuraho and Orissa.
Fa-Hien, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim traversed India from west to east at the beginning of
the 5th century A.D and throughout his journey he was never once molested or attacked.
Under the rule of the Guptas which lasted almost to the end of the 5th century India was
perhaps the happiest and most civilized region in the world.

IN THE NORTH
The Gupta Empire withstood the pressure of the central Asian nomads or the Huns long
enough to divert the greatest of their fury towards Europe. In about 500 A.D Tormana the
Hun established his capital in ancient Sagala (the former capital of King Menander). His
son Mihirgula turned upon the Buddhists destroying many of their monastic
establishments in the Gandhara region and slaughtering the inmates. Monasteries like
Takht-e-Bahi survived in a ruinous state.

Soon a confederacy of Hindu kings led by Yashodharaman of Kanauj finally forced him to
seek shelter in the valley of Kashmir where he died. Again now for over a 100 years India
succumbed to a period of feudalism. Finally, Prince Harsha of Thanesar (north of modern
Delhi) ascended the throne of Kanauj in 630 A.D. Over the next 6 years Harsha subdued
all who were not obedient. After this he reigned in peace for 30 years.
Some say that when Harsha was a lad of 16 he had wanted to enter a Buddhist
monastery, his faith in the Middle Path was unshakable. It was under his reign that
Buddhism had it last days of glory in India. By this time Buddhism had a following in north-
west Afghanistan, Burma, South Asia and across the Himalayas in China.
India particularly the region of modern Bihar was like Jerusalem to the Christians. Pilgrims
and scholars were beginning to pour in, in search of solace and knowledge. This made
places associated with Buddhas life blossom into centres of holy pilgrimage Kapilvastu,
the place of nativity; Bodh Gaya, the scene of enlightenment and Sarnath where the first
sermon was delivered.
Nalada which was a centre of learning that had been established years ago was gaining
worldwide importance.

IN THE SOUTH
Aihole remained the capital of the Chalukyan kings till Mangalisa shifted it to Vitapi
(Badami) in 578 A.D which was picturesquely located on a lake and surrounded by steeply
rising cliffs.
 ADDITIONS TO DURGA AND LAD KHAN
In the Durga temple the shikara which had already been developed in the North was
planted over the apsidal end of the flat roof. The Lad Khan was adorned with a cubic
volume built over the central flat portion of the roof over the main hall. This resulted in
the height of both being enhanced.
The design of an old temple, on a ledge of rock overlooking Badami, is likely an inspired
though radically modified version of the profiles of Lad Khan.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE VIMANA

The designer of this temple reorganised the disparate elements into an integrated whole.
The garbhagriha is now relocated at the core of the composition. The aisles so formed
around the cella become an enclosed pradakshina path roofed with massive sloping slabs
of stone. In the ground plan a small mandap or ante-room precedes the garbhagriha along
with an entrance portico similar to that of the Lad Khan.

The tower over the garbhagriha now takes the form of a stepped
pyramid, every step defined by rounded off horizontal mouldings of varying thicknesses.
The apex is crowned by a domical form derived from the shallow almost semi circular
contours of a bamboo canopy built over a square base.
The combination of a stepped
pyramid and dome with a cubic or
prismatic base was novel and
pleasing and became the hallmark
of south Indian temple architecture
symbolising the Shaivite aspect of
the Hindu trinity which enjoyed
great popularity in the south just as
the Vaishnavite enjoyed in the
north.

This Vimana or pyramidical tower

was however far from perfect but
refinements of detail and the
fluidity of the profile were achieved
by another group of craftsmen
elsewhere in India.
THE CHALUKYA-PALLAVA INTER
RELATIONSHIP

Chalukyan control was

challenged by the Pallavas of
the upper southern coast. Their
powers were evenly balanced
and this resulted in frequent
tests of strength between
them. The Pandya, Kadamba
and Ganga dynasties of the
further south played second
fiddle and supported
whichever side was
advantageous to them.
At the conclusion of such battles skilled craftsmen transferred allegiance either voluntarily
or forcibly to build temples for the victorious king. Hence, there was parallel and inter
related growth of temple architecture in the cities of the Chalukyas and the Pallavas.

THE RATHAS OF MAHABALIPURAM

Mahabalipuram was the coastal capital of the Pallavas. Situated at the mouth of the Palar
River, it stood on a 100 feet high and half a mile long hill of granite gneiss.
Mahendra Verman II (Pallava ruler of the early 7th century and
contemporary of Harshavardhana of Thanesar) was mainly responsible for the political and
cultural growth of the Tamil country. He was born Jaina but converted to Shaivism quite
early. He was greatly interested in the arts. It was under his patronage that a novel and
significant experiment in the art of temple building in the south was carried out.
By now 2 distinct guilds had evolved; that of the stone masons and stone carvers and each
was eager to challenge the other. The latter were commissioned and they created in one
spot a multitude of forms and shapes that the ideal Hindu temple could take. A small
granite outcrop about 250 feet long and 30 feet high south of Mahabalipuram became the
site of this experiment.
The granite outcrop was chiselled into free standing monolithic models of structural buildings.
This resulted in the 7 Rathas (literally chariots) of Mahabalipuram. Due to the disposition of the
outcrop the seven virtual architectural models are of moderate size and aligned along a single
axis. For some reasons, the work of finishing and polishing the models was abandoned. Each of
these was named after a hero of the great Hindu epic the Mahabharata.

Draupadi, the simplest, is based on a wooden shrine with a square base and a curvilinear
thatch roof. Three others are interpretations of the Buddhist chaitya hall. The most elementary
(Bhim) is rectangular in plan with a peripheral colonnade covered with a barrel vaulted roof.
The Sahadeva, has a 3 tiered roof
over and apsidal ended plan,
culminating into the barrel
vaulted chaitya form at the apex.
The Ganesh Ratha has a
rectangular entrance portico
attached to the forms of the
Sahadeva Ratha. The form of the
Dharmaraj proved to be the king
among all.
It was built over a square plan and each receding level (Bhumi) of the pyramidical roof of
the Dhramaraj is in itself a miniature model of the Buddhist vihara. What were cells for the
residence of the monks in the original are here miniature domes or barrel vaulted turrets.
The place of the central open court of the vihara is taken up by a solid core of rectangular
masonry diminishing in size at it approaches the apex. The finial is an elegantly contoured
ribbed octagonal dome poised over a cylindrical shaft.

The Chalukyan builder and

the Pallava sculptor has
thus between themselves
evolved an appropriately
aesthetic spire (Vimana) for
the garbhagriha of the
south Indian temple.
Mahendra Vermans
successor, Rajasimha
proceeded to dot the
eastern coast line and his
new 7th century capital of
Kanchipuram with temples
that were variations of the
Dharmaraja scheme.
 SHORE TEMPLE, MAHABALIPURAM
The most exquisite and well preserved is the Shore temple at
Mahabalipuram. Half in the sea and half on land, the main sanctuary looks towards the sea
while a subsidiary one faces the shore since the entrance to the former became flooded
and unapproachable at high tide. The spires over either of the cellas are the most serene
and beautiful masonry versions of the Dharmaraja Ratha. Their elongated profile is like a
feminine complement to the masculinity of the Dharmaraja prototype.
The sanctuaries and subsidiary mandapas of the temple stood within a
walled precinct. The courtyard could be partially flooded by a complex system of channels,
reservoirs and drains that carried the sea water into basins around the cult room. The
Pallavas, a sea-faring people, conducted rituals of worship of water in this temple. To the
Pallava mariner, this edifice was a virtual lighthouse a lamp lit on a pillar in the courtyard
could be seen from the ocean through an aperture in the wall.
Rajasimha attemplted to build an even larger temple, the Kailash Nath,
in Kanchipuram. To enlarge the base the architects appended mini rathas at the corners
and middle of the four walls of the cells; a none too successful experiment that was never
repeated.
 THE EVOLUTION OF AN INTEGRATED PLAN BY THE CHALUKYAS
The Pallava craftsmen evolved an elegant form for the Vimana. They were unable to
integrate the other elements like the mandapa (assembly hall) and entrance portico into
a balanced whole. The Chalukyan artists showed greater concern in evolving a logical
overall architectural plan that would gather together these parts into a united whole.
Vikramaditya I established Pattadakal as the new capital halfway between Aihole and
Badami. The 7th century Papanath temple at Pattadakal is the last southern shrine
adorned with a shikara instead of a vimana. The craftsmen realized that the slender
shikara couldnt counter balance the lower mass of horizontality in their plan.

THE VIRUPAKSHA AT PATTADAKKAL

In the temple of Virupaksha at Pattadakkal the garbhagriha was surmounted by the
southern vimana. To achieve balance between the upper and lower parts of the temple, a
richly sculptured barrel shaped form was projected out from the middle of the vimana to
interlock the tower and the mandapa. It restrains the horizontal thrust of the form
below. The mandapa and the cella have a more convincing spatial link up by enveloping
the garbhagriha within the outer walls of the mandapa. The corridor like space along the
back and sides becomes a pradaksina or circumambulatory path for the worshippers.
There now is formed a small ante chamber like space between the opening to the cella
and the clearly defines space of the mandapa. The mandapa could be approached through
any of the 3 porticos in the middle of its outer walls. Hence, the super structure of the
temple is built up from a neatly synchronized ground plan.
 STRUGGLES AND EMERGENCE OF THE RASHTRAKUTAS
The Chalukya king Vikramaditya attacked the Pallava capital city of
Kanchipuram in 740 A.D. Both these powers had exhausted their wealth and energies in
incessant mutual wars. Rulers of the other dynasties were quick to take advantage of the
power vacuum in the southern peninsula.
The Cholas began gnawing at regions of Pallava power and the
Rashtrakutas (heirs of the Vakatakas) overcame the Chalukyas.
The heart of the Rashtrakuta kingdom was the Westen ghats where
the rock cut form of architecture had flourished. This art was rejuvenated under the
growing power of the Rasktrakutas with excavations of cave temples on the island of
Ghorapuri (modern Elephanta), just off the shores of Bombay.

INDIVIDUAL READING TOPICS:

THE CAVES OF ELEPHANTA
THE GREAT KAILASA AT ELLORA
The Kailasa was like a gauntlet thrown at the stone mason, challenging him to create, if
he could, edifices as lofty as the Kailasa. This challenge was taken up in great spirit to
give rise to the great temples of medieval India.

THE KANAUJ TRIANGLE

The Rashtrakuta Kings wanted the city of Kanauj in the central plains. Thanks to King
Harsha, Kanauj enjoyed the status that Pataliputra had under the Mauryas. The
Rashtrakutas had to contend with the Pratiharas in the west and the Palas of Bengal in
the East. The Pratiharas (literally door keepers) had staved off the Arabs who had by
the 8th century established large Muslim colonies in the Sindh. The Palas had risen to
power under the leadership of Gopala whose armies prevailed in Bengal and Bihar.
Gopalas son Dharmapala pitted Pala power against the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.

None were able to establish control over northern India or even Kanauj. Though it was a
centre of temporal power and the Palas, Pratiharas , Rashtrakutas and even the Turks
wanted to control it, it never acquired any prominence in the scheme of Indian
architecture.
Between the sack of
Kanauj by the Turks and
the rise of Delhi 300 years
later, a number of
provincial capitals sprouted
up all over the country.

There existed and alliance

between the ruling and
priestly classes. The latter
diverted the attention of
the commoner to the
worship of the expanding
Hindu pantheon and in
return the ruling Kshatriya
class paid tribute to the
Brahmin. They footed the
bill for the performance of
elaborate rituals and the
building of great and many
temples.
 THE PERMANENCY OF TEMPLE BUILDING
Religious edifices alone were erected in permanent materials like
stone while secular architecture had to be content with brick and timber. Indian
architecture of the middle ages thus became the story of the evolution of the art of
temple building.

The method Grover adopts to trace the evolution of temple

architecture in the north is to treat its various phases not dynastically, but
geographically so that each may be described according to the region in which it
flourished. However he notes that there is an undercurrent of thought... which
indicates that all these examples belong to the same wide movement. Craftsmen
working in a particular region obviously evolved a distinct school of their own yet were
often influenced by ideas developed in different regions.

There were many centres of feverish building activity in 8th century

feudal India the most prominent being in the central region of the hills surrounding
Gwalior, the western plains of Gujarat and Kathiawar, the eastern coast of Orissa and in
the deserts of Rajasthan in the North West.
 TEMPLES OF OSIAN IMPORTANT FEATURES
In the 8th century in the village of Osian, in Rajasthan, which was probably the capital of
the Pratiharas a few small but elegant temples were crafted in stone.
1. Addition of a Mandapa or open assembly hall supported on columns to the cella
and shikara.
2. Temples raised on a high plinths.
3. Outer surface is adorned with sculpture.
4. Removal of false porticoes used in Deogarh.
5. The sloping stone seat now exquisitely decorated surrounds the Mandapa.
6. The plinth is stopped short of the end portico columns, which are carried right down
to the natural ground adding to their slenderness.
Crowning achievement: SURYA TEMPLE AT OSIA
The columns of the entrance portico rise straight up from ground level and have vertical
flutings on their circular shafts. This temple was set within a rectangular precinct defined
by a cloister at each corner of which was located a subsidiary shrine.
 SUN
TEMPLE,
OSIA,
RAJASTHAN
 THE TELI-KA-MANDIR
At the Gwalior fort
Its form is derived from the Buddhist
Chaitya hall roof over a rectangular
shrine.
Richly sculptured horizontal friezes.
80 feet high tower.
 KALINGA
Kalinga (modern Orissa) was emerging as a flourishing centre of
temple building activity. It was ruled by a succession of kings who sought personal
glorification through the building of temples. The kings and priests ruled over a people
who lived in poor conditions. The cities of Kalinga were hence famous for their great
temples. Over a period of 700 years the holy city of Bhubaneshwar came to acquire some
7000 temples and little else.

VAITAL DEUL AT BHUBANESHWAR

The form of the shikara is attached to the corners of the rectangular
roofed mandapa in front. This indicated the general trend of the Orissa builder towards
favouring the shikara as a more acceptable finial for the Hindu temple. However, the
Orissa craftsmen chose to interpret the shikara as an almost perpendicular prismatic
tower. The vertical profile of the Orissa shikara converged only near the apex, towards the
circular Kalasa at the top. This so called SHOULDER TYPE SPIRE became in due course the
distinguishing feature of Orissa temples.
 THE VAITAL DEUL

At Bhubaneswar

Its form is derived from the Buddhist Chaitya

hall roof.
35 feet high tower which is a refined version
of the Teli-ka-mandir.
3 kalasa finials over the ridge.
 LEFT:
Plan of the Vaital Deul at
Bhubaneswar

RIGHT:
View of the mandapa
of the Vaital Deul with
the form of the
shikara attached to
the corners
 THE PARASURAMESWARA TEMPLE AT BHUBANESWAR
The need was felt for attaching a mandapa or a covered hall to single roomed
shrines and hence often existing simple shrines would be expanded. The 8th century
Parasurameswar is an example for such an expansion. This mandapa was rectangular in
plan and the central aisle along its longer side is flat roofed. The side aisles are covered
with sloping stone slabs and there is a horizontal opening between the 2 forming a sort of
clerestory lightning for the interior. The walls are made up of cyclopean stone blocks and
the structural techniques used here are rather primitive.
 THE LITTLE GEM OF MUKTESWAR

So far the mandapa had always been treated as a room attached to the door of
the main shrine. Now the mandapa received due attention. The Hindu architect made it
square in plan and then he proceeded to roof it with a tapering form but realizing the
subservience of the mandapa to the deul he designed it as a shallow pyramid substantially
lower than the shikara.

It was constructed as a series of corbelled courses of stone which appear as

cornices punctuated by small triangular uprights. These uprights were nothing but a
geometric crystallization of the bamboo purlins of the thatch original. There is a marked
and well shaded gap between 2 consecutive courses.

The temple tower was also clearly defined and each horizontal course of the
shoulder type shikara is well modulated and defined. The entrance to the temple is
through a torana, consisting of 2 vertical pillars spanned corbelled semi circular richly
sculptured arch.
The precincts of the temple are
defined by a low parapet
adorned with richly sculptured
friezes. The meticulous planning
of both the deul and the
Jagmohan resulted in this temple
which was never repeated in the
land of Kalinga.

Almost all other temples of even

the 9th and 10th century of the
Orissan style display an inherent
weakness in establishing an
appropriate relationship
between the cella and the
mandapas.
 KHAJURAHO THE CAPITAL OF THE CHANDELAS
The Chandelas had gained supremacy in the Bundelkhand region of
central India in about 1000 A.D. Their colleagues proceeded to embellish the capital city
of Khajuraho with Hindu and Jain temples.
Chandelas displayed a total comprehension of temple design. Their
largest group of 16 temples is set in Khajuraho which was at one time the bustling
capital of a burgeoning dynasty. Only in one of these is the deity still worshipped. The
rest are a tourist haunt famous for their architectural excellence and erotic sculpture.

THE EARLY TEMPLES OF KAHJURAHO

1. All the temples of Khajuraho were set on broad high terraces.

2. The floor level of most is raised by another 10 to 12 feet and a stately flight of steps
lead from the terrace to the entrance. Over this the plan is laid out.
3. They show remarkable unity of composition.
4. Most of their mandapas are open and supported on columns.
5. The sequence of spaces is usually as follows entrance vestibule, mandapa, antralaya
and garbhagriha.
6. The apex of the shallow pyramidical roofs over the front compartments ascends
gracefully towards the climax of the shikara rising over the cella of the garbhagriha.
 THE SHIKARAS OF KHAJURAHO
The shikaras of Khajuraho are architectural masterpieces with
ascending parabolic outlines rising to the top in one graceful sweep. The Chandela
builder concealed the horizontal joints under clearly defined projecting vertical bands
planted in the middle of each of the four faces of the shikara, which rose up towards the
Amlaka or capstone in perfect rhythm with the curvilinear outline of the shikara.
The shikara was the crowning glory of the scheme. The Hindu
sculptor created visual drama by the simple but appealing idea of ornamenting the body
of the shikara with vari-dimensional aspects of its own shape. Shikaras in semi-relief
complete with amalka and kalasa (Urusringa) were applied over the four upper surfaces
of the body of the shikara. The builder repeated this technique ad-infinitum. The corners
of the base became like a vertical chain of superimposed mini shikaras. The body of the
tower was filled out and its gracefully ascending profile was enhanced by superimposed
gradually ascending Urusringas on the 4 faces.
The silhouette creates an impression of a line of lofty mountain
ranges. The functional part the cella, mandapas are in contrast strikingly modest in
volume. The dimly lit spaces are like a cave carved out from the body of an artificially
created mountain. Thus the traditional spirit of an Indian place of worship which was
usually a mysterious and dark cave excavated out of living rock was preserved.
 ORISSA
There was contemporary developed in Orissa in the mid 11th century in the pilgrimage
centres of Bhubaneswar and Puri. Stylistically they had massive masonry walls with
minimal openings. The most ambitious examples are the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar
and the Jaganath temple at Puri which were almost identical in style and construction.

THE GREAT LINGARAJA

It initially consisted of a cella and a mandapa. The cella is a 56 ft square
and rises about 140 ft. The mandapa which is rectangular in plan requires additional
support in the form of four massive central columns and its pyramidical roof rises to about
100 feet.
The Brahmin system of worship was becoming increasingly complex and
sculpted image of the God had to be fed, clothed and bathed.
Two more halls had to be added to the Jagmohan. These were called
the Nat Mandir where the devadasis danced to entertain the Gods or more likely the
Brahmins. The Bhog Mandir was the next hall and this was where food received from the
houses of rich donors was supposedly blessed by the Holy presence and a substantial part
was distributed to the poor.
The God enshrined in the cella could look out only through a single opening in the
direction of the Jag Mohan and so to ensure visual access (so the Gods could enjoy the
dancing and bless the food) the Nat Mandir and the Bhog Mandir had to be attached
along the existing Deul-Jagmohan axis. The square additional halls like the Jagmohan in
plan, elevation and methods of construction added to the volume of the temple but not
to its architectural composition. The subsequent additions were taller than the
Jagmohan and threw the entire composition out of balance. The silhouette became
awkwardly convex.
ORISSAN CRAFTSMEN COULD ONLY VISUALIZE THE TEMPLE AS A SUM OF A SERIES OF
UNRELATED UNITS.
PLAN SECTION AND DETAILS OF THE LINGARAJA TEMPLE,
BHUBANESWAR
THE SHOULDER TYPE
SHIKARA OF THE
LINGARAJA TEMPLE
EMBELLISHED WITH
HORIZONTAL
SCULPTED COURSES
THE RAJA-RANI TEMPLE AT BHUBANESWAR
THE RAJA-RANI TEMPLE AT BHUBANESWAR

1. Influence of Khajuraho style seen

in the incomplete Raja-Rani
temple.
2. Deul is actually a square placed
diagonally with relation to the
Jagmohan.
3. In its elevation the Kahjuraho
device of attaching shikaras and
Urusringas was used to good
effect.
4. This spire looks more graceful but
still lacks the rhythm of the
Khajuraho temples.
 THE TEMPLES OF ORISSA
The temples of Orissa share certain
characteristics:
1. The garbhagriha is referred to as the Deul
while the Mandapa is referred to as the
Jagmohan
2. The superstructure of the Deul consists of
the familiar shoulder type shikara
3. The superstructure of the Jagmohan
consists of a pyramidal roof with
pronounced horizontal moulded tiers
4. Additional halls included the Nat Mandir
and Bhog Mandir
5. The walls of most of the parts of these
temples are built of huge stone blocks and
the madapas are not the airy open
mandapas held up by columns like the
Gujarat and Khajuraho style
 TEMPLES OF WESTERN INDIA
The western region of India comprising of parts of Gujarat, Kathiawar, Rajasthan and
central India was under the stable rule of the Solanki dynasty and was the focus of great
trading activity and had a prosperous and flourishing mercantile community.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS:

The Gujarat craftsmans genius lay in the building of sometimes exquisite, and
sometimes elaborate and grandiose mandapas for his temple.
The mandapa doesnt have an enclosing wall and is held up on a series of columns.
The heart of the mandapa is usually an octagonal space and this is defined by tall
and slender columns.
The entire arrangement is set within a diagonally sited square the four outer sides
of which are enriched by rectangular offsets.
The taller columns on the periphery of
the central octagon are tied together by
stone lintels and provide intermediate
support for the pyramidical roof
constructed by corbelled stone work.
The zigzag outline of the mandapa
creates vivid passage of light and shade
and provides surfaces for embellishing
with sculpture.
The Asana forms a heavy sloping band
of stone over and all along the mass of the
plinth and reduces the appearance of the
peripheral supports to mere dwarf
columns.
The temples are lifted up on a beautiful
horizontally delineated plinth.
TEMPLE AT KIRADU, RAJASTHAN
SAS-BAHU TEMPLE AT GWALIOR
 THE GREAT TEMPLES OF MEDIEVAL INDIA
From the 10th century onwards great temples were built in different
part of North India Modhera in Gujarat, Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh and Konark in
Orissa. These were the finest achievements of the 3 great schools of Gujarat, Khajuraho
and Orissa.

THE SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA

It was erected in 1026. Temples to the Sun God display a uniform
pattern of development and decay. They are constructed away from daily urban life, are
unusually ambitious and lay deserted and ignored by pilgrims for centuries.
This temple was built most probably under the patronage of the
Solankis. The various constituents of the temple a huge bathing tank, columnar Sabha
Mandapa, peristyle assembly hall and shrine are knit together into an entirely organic
plan.
PLAN, THE SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA
The huge rectangular tank lies beneath the main eastern approach to the temple. Water is
contained within buttressed walls that are a maze of steps and terraces, interspersed with
mini shrines. A large flight of stairs led to a torana archway resting on 2 gracefully
moulded columns. The capital, shaft and base are all contained within one sweeping
rhythmic curve in the sensuous style of Modhera.
Behind the torana is the Sabha Mandapa planned around an octagonal pillared space in
the typical Gujarat style. Sloping seats and dwarf columns are set in rectangular offsets
around its periphery. The mandapa is both the functional and visually vibrant heart of the
complex. The shafts of the columns are exquisitely embroidered with scrolls of
ornamentation interspersed with sculptures of gods and goddesses. The pillars on the
periphery of the central octagonal space are laced together delicately by carved interlinked
sinuous brackets referred to as flying toranas.

The rest of the temple

comprising the grabhagriha and
attached mandapa virtually
vanished. It was a conventional
walled structure and its
ornamentation echoed the
rhythmic lines of the main
mandapa. This entire temple
was raised over a massive
rectangular stylobate.
 THE SUN TEMPLE, KONARAK

The craftsmen of Orissa decided to house their Sun God blazing his way through the
heavens on the chariot of time pulled by seven leaping and prancing magnificent horses.
This remote site was on the sea coast of Orissa away from Bhubaneswar and Puri.

To simulate the appearance of a ratha, the longer sides of the terrace over which the
temple was erected was ornamented with reliefs of 12 massive wheels more than 10 feet
in diameter complete with a hub, timber pins and spokes. The parapets on either sides of
the flight of stairs rising to the entrance are a row of life size sculptures of richly
caparisoned steeds, rearing and straining in their harnesses, as they strive to drag the great
bulk (of the temple) along.

Over the main platform are placed the Jagmohan and duel. On another high plinth facing
the majestic flight of steps leading to the shrine is the Nat Mandir which is a modest sized
replica of the Jagmohan. This complex along with a subsidiary shrine to Ramachandra and
a refectory is set within a vast 865x540 feet enclosure. The enclosing wall was provided
with 3 pyramidical roofed gateways located at the centres of its eastern, northern and
southern walls.
The shikara over the deul containing an image of the sun god was to rise to a height of
about 200 feet. The masonry necessary was wide enough to enclose 3 subsidiary shrines,
each approached by an individual external staircase. But the ambitions of King
Narshimdeva (1238-64) were beyond the technical skill of his craftsmen. The foundations
started sinking before its completion.

The 100 feet high Jagmohan built over massive and thick stone walls was given additional
support in the form of 4 massive central piers, spanned by stone lintels reinforced with
wrought iron beams. In the 19th century the interior of the hall was made inaccessible as it
had to be completely blocked with rubble from inside to prevent its corbelled roof from
caving in.

The gigantic pyramidical roof of the Jagmohan has diminishing tiers thats are interspersed
with broad platforms rather than mere steps. The Indian sculptor planted full bodied
statues of heroic dimensions along the edges of the lowest platform. Each of these
represents a musician. This was the Hindu sculptors first attempt with completely free
standing statuary. The remains of the grand temple complex are more a tribute to the
Indian craftsmans sculptural skills than his structural integrity
THE SUN TEMPLE, KONARAK
THE SUN TEMPLE, KONARAK
THE SUN TEMPLE, KONARAK
 THE KANDARYA MAHADEV, KHAJURAHO

The Kandarya Mahadev temple contains 4 compartments and the inter-relationship of

each to the whole results in a perfectly balanced and composed elevation with its
components gracefully inter-linked with each other.

They are the garbhagriha, surrounding pradakshina path, antaralaya, mandapa and
ardha mandapa of which the first four are compactly enclosed within a continuous
peripheral wall pierced only by beautifully crafted balconies. Just enough light is
admitted to bring the sculptured surfaces of the interior to life. The roof of the ardha
mandapa is held up on columns.

The height of the temple spire is about 35 meters (116 feet); the quadrupled application
of the Urusringas and the soaring vertical lines of the shikara create an illusion of
height. The vertical volumes of the shikaras of Khajuraho take off from a base of marked
horizontality right up to the level of the balconies in the outer walls.
THE KANDARIYA MAHADEVA, KHAJURAHO
The dark voids of the balconies and the
open pillared mandapa in front create
the impression of a massive pile of
masonry poised delicately over slender
columns, adding a subtle touch of
lightness to the virtual mountain of
stone.

A feature that is common both to

Konarak and Khajuraho is the profusion
of erotic sculpture on the temple walls.
 TEMPLES OF THE CHOLAS AND THE PANDYAS IN THE SOUTH

In the 10th and 11th centuries in the south the Chola dynasty began to dominate they
desired something grander to immortalise their glory.

BRIHADESVARA TEMPLE, TANJORE

The Chola king Rajaraja the Great (985-1081) commissioned the Brihadesvara temple in
Tanjore after conquering it. Until now, no tower higher than 60 feet had been
attempted. The cella became a square of 82 feet side, containing within it a pradakshina
path around the cella. The cube of the garbhagriha was carried to a height of 50 feet.
Thereafter the familiar pyramidical tower soared another 130 feet and was capped by a
single enormous domical stone weighing more than 80 tons.

2 flat roofed mandapas were placed in front along the central axis.
The portico housing the sculpture of the Holy Nandi bull is situated along the same axis
but is detached from the main temple. The entire complex is in a quadrangle defined by
a peripheral veranda of 2 rows of columns.
The 200 feet high stone tower is a reproduction of the Dravidian Vimana. The
horizontal tiers of its 13 stories have been suppressed to accentuate its verticality. This
Vimana has withstood the ravages of 900 years, literally without a dent. The south
Indian craftsmen thus showed a greater understanding of structural principles.
 CHOLA CONQUESTS
Rajaraja was followed by his son Rajendra I who subdued the neighbouring Chalukyas
who controlled the Malabar ports. He sent a Chola expedition north east across Orissa.
The Cholas also had trade relations with China and waged a successful campaign
against the Kingdom of Shrivijaya (the southern Malay Peninsula and Sumatra). The
alliance of Kerala, Srilanka and the Pandyas was also crushed by the Cholas.

THE TEMPLE OF GANGAIKONDACHOLAPURAM

Rajendra I shifted the seat of power to Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificence of

the temple defined the greatness of an Indian city and hence the most dominant
edifice of this new city was to be a monumental temple. This temple was modelled on
the great temple at Tanjore.

The vimana of this temple is more fluid and has a subconscious grace. The Mandapa is
75x195 feet and is held up on more than 150 columns and this is the precursor to the
hall of thousand columns. The entire structure is raised on a high platform. The
approaches are like processional paths and are at ground level.
 THE TRIUMPH OF THE PANDYAS AND THE INVASION OF ISLAM

Rajendra I died in 1050 A.D and even though the Cholas sacked the Chalukyan capital of
Kalyani, they were unable to decimate the Chalukyans. The Pandyas, Keralas and Sri Lanka
in the south also sapped them of their strength and after 800 years, the Cholas succumbed
to the Pandyas in the middle of the 14th century.

The Pandyas inherited the wealth of trade that the Cholas had established and their
trading cities. Meanwhile, in the North a force had crossed the Khyber Pass and
established domination the armies of Islam. They established their capital in Delhi and
were beginning to make inroads into the Hindu Empires of the Deccan.

The temples of Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram never became popular centres of

worship. The religious sentiment of the people was directed more towards ancient
temples and hence the energies of the craftsmen under the Pandyas were concentrated in
the maintenance, addition of ancillaries and the enlargement and protection of such
ancient structures.
 THE NEED FOR PROTECTION AND THE ARTICULATION OF TEMPLE GATEWAYS

To guard their wealth, high utilitarian walls, often battlemented and provided with
platforms were built around such sacred temples. This was prompted also by the threat
threat of a Muslim invasion from the North. The external appearance of these temples
was reduced to the plainness of a fortress a function that the temple could actually
perform in the case of an emergency.

The idea of erecting lofty entrance gateways at entrance points in the walls served a 2 fold
objective of alleviating the monotonous drabness of the enclosure and endowing
appropriate visual impact to the temple precincts. Lofty portal or Gopurams (literally cow
gate) could be erected in the outer walls without disrupting the ritual or endangering the
security of the temple.
 THE DELHI
SULTANATE IN
NORTH INDIA

Areas conquered under

the Khilji Rule
 THE EVOLUTION OF THE GOPURAM (COW GATE)

An entrance to the house of God had to be a massive form and visible for miles around.
They did not want to rival or repeat the form of the Vimana. The square plan of the
garbhagriha was also inappropriate as it was sacred and had a sense of firmness and
finality.

The ideal design would be one that conveyed a sense of transition from outside towards
the inner sanctum. A broad side on rectangular plan conveyed this and so the gateway
became a vertical pile of masonry rising over the oblong of the plan. The central opening
was spanned by massive lintels of stone and brackets were introduced if needed.

Over this rose a pyramidal structure composed of diminishing tiers generally built in brick
and plaster. The topmost tier was also a rectangle in plan and they used the barrel vault
roof of the Buddhist chaitya hall crowned with a row of finials over the ridge for the climax.
Every inch was covered with tiers upon tiers of sculptures. This was called the Gopuram
which literally translates to Cow-Gate.

Over time a number of such towers rising around a temple became the familiar skyline of
any urban settlement in the south. The temple was now the centre of religious, economic,
social and cultural life. Such a large institution had a sizeable annual income and kept an
army of musicians, attendants and women entertainers and many hundreds of priests.
The temple also generated a steady
income by financing commercial
enterprises and acting as banker
and money lenders. The devadasis
were also another perpetual source
of income.

Growth in the functions of the

temple demanded a corresponding
physical growth. However, their
temple precincts were already
enclosed by a forbidding wall and
the only way to acquire more land
was to throw another concentric
ring of even larger battlements,
punctuated by equally large
Gopurams. This led to the evolution
of the great temple cities of
Madurai and Rameswaram.
 THE HOYSALAS AND THE
YADAVAS

Temple building was at an

end in the North and
craftsmen were
immigrating southwards.
The northern Deccan was
controlled by the Yadavas
who employed these
craftsmen. These
craftsmen were the
descendants of the ones
who had evolved the
Gujarat style and the
13the century temples of
this region are larger
variations of the themes
of Gujarat.
 HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE

In the region around modern Mysore the Hoysalas emerged the victors after a struggle
with the Cholas. Racially they had a greater affinity with the North and didnt want
their architecture to resemble that of their enemies. Hence the north Indian craftsmen
were more than welcome to evolve a new style. But due to the strong traditions of the
Dravidian south he could not erect direct copies of shikaras and mandapas as he had
done for the Yadavas.

This mingling of northern and southern traditions resulted in a third, classified as that
of the Hoysalas. In this style the features of the 2 are subtly merged together into novel
forms. This region more than 700 years ago under the Chalukyas, had seen the birth of
the northern and southern styles, the shikara and the vimana; now the builders were
evolving yet another style by merging together the 2 mother styles.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE

1. In the tower over the cella, horizontal tiers were submerged and the recesses and
chases of the base were carried up into the tower of the newly evolved Vimana-
shikara. This form became more curvilinear than the vimana and yet not quite the
parabolic profile of the shikara. With refinement, the towers acquired a bell-like
profile.
2. The circular shafts of the columns were turned out from a stone lathe and with
refinement adorned with a series of parallel almost knife life edges of various
shapes.
3. Their temples and shrines had more than one central garbhagriha (even up to 5).
4. These were grouped along one end of a large common mandapa which was the
familiar cross shaped pillared hall but it was distinguished by the circular shafts of
the columns.
5. The plan of each of these cellas was an elaborate star shape.
6. Even the platform echoed the outline of the cella.
ANALYSIS OF THE STAR SHAPED
PLAN:
The builders developed their stellar
outline from the square by
rotating the square around its fixed
centre and turning its diagonal
through a series of equal angles.
The resulting outline was a star
shape which could be varied by
changing the angle through which
the diagonal was turned. This paid
deference to the square and at the
same time added a new dimension
to temple planning.
 PLIABLE CHLORITE SCHIST OF THE HOYSALAS
Closely textured chlorite schist was readily available and easy to work with. This was soft
when quarried but turned hard on exposure to air. This was the ideal medium for the
Hoysala builders. Blocks of chlorite schist were turned on a lathe to reduce them to
circular shafts and invested with concave and convex mouldings with almost knife like
edges. The squat horizontality so acquired became the theme of the decorative scheme,
from the stylobate of the base to the apex of the bell like tower.

The Hoysala king

Vishnuwardhan rebuilt
the old capital of
Dwarasamudra, naming it
Halebid and
commissioned his chief
architect Janaka Acharya
to build a temple to
Chenna Keshava at
Velapura.
 THE GREAT HOYSALESWARA TEMPLE AT HALEBID

The same king commissioned the Great Hoysalasvara temple which became the focus of
Halebid. The architect laid out at Halebid 2 identical temples, parallel to each other
connected only at their transepts. Each temple has in addition its own Nandi mandapa
detached from the main body of the shrine.

The walls of the Hoysalesvara are similar to an illustrated scroll. The elevations scheme
consists of closely crafted continuous mouldings, borders, friezes, cornices and bands of
statuary carried all around the building. There is no bell shaped tower over the cella and
it was either never completed or it was desecrated later.
 THE FOUNDING OF VIJAYANAGAR

The Sultans of Delhi established a Turkish governor at Daulatabad who revolted and
proclaimed himself King Bahman Shah with his capital at Gulbarga. He was unable to
expand to the south due to opposition from the Kingdoms at Warangal and Hastnavati.

Ultimately, the Sultans sent armies to reclaim their Kingdom in the south and carried
back 2 Warangal princes, Harihara and Bukka to Delhi where they were converted to
Islam and sent back, charged with the mission of establishing the Sultans authority.

Harihara got himself crowned King of Hampi and was even accepted back into the Hindu
fold. Ably aided by Bukka and proclaiming independence from his Muslim overlords, he
went about the task off consolidating his newly acquired Empire.

He established a new capital at Hampi and went about expanding the existing town. He
took advantage of the availability of material from the site of construction and
completed the first phase of expansion in 7 years.
 The empire founded by
Harihara stretched from
the eastern to the western
coast within a period of a
hundred years. The
Indians purchased their
horses from the
Portuguese traders in Goa.
They established friendly
relations with Hindu
Vijayanagar since the
Muslims were their rivals
for control of trade across
the Arabian Sea. Hampi
grew into the famous
VIJAYANAGAR THE CITY
OF VICTORY
 TEMPLE BUILDING UNDER KRISHNADEVARAJA

Under King Krishnadevaraja of the 16th century the city reached the climax of its glory.
He gave great wealth as endowments on temples and Brahmins so that they would not
challenge the heredity of the kings from a Muslim convert.

Rituals had become so elaborate that it was no longer possible to contain them within
the axially aligned compartments of the temple. The temples of Vijayanagar are not the
unified compositions but consist of a number of small units, each with its own
prescribed function, set rather haphazardly as dictated by the terrain, within a large
rectangular enclosure. The basic unit was a flat roofed hall, supported on a series of
elaborately crafted columns.

In Vijayanagar often living rock was the foundation of temples and palaces. It is therefore
difficult to tell where nature ends and art begins. This is a record of the perfect harmony
between art and nature.
 THE GREAT VITHALA TEMPLE

The Vithala temple was commissioned by Krishnadevaraja in the beginning of the 16th
century and is spread over approximately 500x300 feet. The central part is a series of
conjoined pillared halls extending horizontally over a distance of 200 feet and as high as
25 feet. The tower over the grabhagriha has vanished and was probably constructed in
brick and plaster.

The Hindu craftsmen of Vijayanagar concentrated on the columns. Between the columns
is a half natural, half mythical relief of a lion. Each pillar has a massive pedestal below
and has gigantic brackets above. Most of the space is devoured by these columns within
the hall.

In the Kalyana Mandapa, attached to the temple, the marriage of gods and goddesses
was conducted annually. This was more elaborately wrought than the main mandapa and
is held up by 12 piers around a square throne in the centre. An imitation chariot cart is
carved out from a single block of hard granite. Its stone wheels, lifted a few inches from
the ground, actually revolve around their axles.
 THE FALL OF VIJAYANAGAR

Krishnadevaraja was succeeded by his son Achyutarya who succumbed to the

machinations of his minister Ramaraja. Due to his growing arrogance the Muslims
ultimately formed an alliance to challenge his power.

On the banks of the Krishna, the Muslim confederation routed the Vijayanagar army.
They then attacked the capital city and for a space of 5 months Vijayanagar knew no rest.
Stone carvings were smashed to pieces and fires were lit to burst it open. The proud
capital was soon a forlorn ruin.

Eventually the Nayaks, tributary leaders of the Vijayanagar Empire, fled deeper into the
South to escape the wrath of Muslim invasions. The Nayaks retreated to Madurai and the
orthodox Hindu craftsmen followed them.
 EVOLUTION OF TEMPLE CITIES SRIRANGANATHASWAMI TEMPLE, SRIRANGAM

Due to the uncertainties of temporal power there was little time, inspiration or spirit for
fresh artistic ideas. After erecting hall after hall of myriads of columns they now merely
elaborated on the same theme. These buildings also gained a more defensive character
to protect the deity from the defiling invasions of Islam. Now the temple builders art
was reduced to throwing a series of battlements around the divine presence, punctuated
by well guarded gateways at the cardinal points.

The great temple of Srirangam near Tiruchirapalli acquired several concentric rings of
growth over a period of more than 500 years. During the Cholas time it was just a village
shrine with a cella and a mandapa but it gained religious popularity.

The space within the walled enclosure surrounding the cella had become too small for
ceremonies and pilgrims. The solution was to throw another concentric wall around the
existing one. New structures could now be built in the space between two parallel walls.
This also ensured that the additional halls were conveniently located more or less
equidistant from the old inner shrine.
Over time the temple precincts needed to be enlarged further and another larger
concentric wall came up. The original open court surrounding the garbhagriha was
completely roofed over.

As more people come to the temple sacred tanks to bathe were built. One was a
rectangular one, representing the sun and the other was a semi circular one,
representing the moon and these became part of another courtyard of the ever growing
temple of Srirangam. The staff needed increased and a large part of it lived in the many
houses built within the many temple walls.

Scores of rooms, cella and chambers were built as dictated by their functional use rather
than architectural harmony. There were 2 elements that contributed to an architectural
pattern walls and gopurams. The walls were concentric and the gopurams were along
the cardinal axes.

Over the years the 80x240 feet enclosure had grown into 2880x2475 feet. The design of a
temple was now a series of concentric fortifications adorned with massive gopurams and
this became the accepted style of temple building.
 THE MEENAKSHI TEMPLE AT MADURAI

This temple is designed as a series of concentric courtyards or prakarmas. The new

prakarmas were endowed with diminishing religious value directly proportional to their
distance from the deity in the inner shrine.

The outermost circle accommodated edifices of a practical nature accounts offices,

dormitories for pilgrims, kitchens, shops dealing in the essential items for the rituals,
maintenance workshops and parking areas. The lower class menials were permitted only
into the outlying areas.

Inner prakarmas contained pavilions for devotional singing and storytelling, bathing
tanks for ritual ablutions and guest houses for important visitors. Here only caste Hindus
were allowed. In the inner most courts were the kitchens for Brahmins, the pavilions for
the dancing girls and the treasury. Here the upper castes only were permitted.
The chosen few allowed to have darshan of the deity could wear only a loincloth to
make it impossible for them to hide away and pilfer the many valuable treasures of the
temple. The actual cella was open only to the officiating priest.

The largeness of one of the flat roofed halls necessitated the setting up of a stone cutters
factory which churned out columns and beams of a standard design. The hall situated
within the Meenakshi temple complex, needed 985 pillars to support its roof measuring
240x250 feet. This was the hall of thousand pillars.

Regardless of the monotony of their productions they found consolation in the massive
size of their ventures.
THE SOARING GOPURAMS
In its earlier stages the profile of a gopuram
was a rigid pyramidal tower and its
horizontal tiers were clearly defined by a
series of vertical pilasters and horizontal
cornices. Soon a more plastic quality arose
by making the profiles curvilinear. The
pilasters and cornices were absorbed into
the large jumbled mass of sculpture.
The outermost more than 150 feet high
gopurams of the Meenakashi temple are
the finest examples of this type of gopuram.
It was completed in the 17th century and it
became the model for temple buildings in
the south.