005 - Geopolitics - The Evolution of Modern Warfare - ROHarmsen

Geopolitics: the
Evolution of Modern
Warfare
Robert O. Harmsen
roharmsen@itesm.mx, 4421093650
The Evolution of Modern
Warfare
Napoleonic Legacy
The Industrialisation of War
Naval Warfare
Total War
Nuclear Weapons & Revolutionary
Warfare
Warfare
Modern warfare generally, the forms

of warfare shaped by and reflecting the
modern era of human history
Developed in terms of a nr. of broad
themes growing power of the state
through processes of centralisation,
bureaucratisation & even
democratisation
Warfare
Rise of ideologies nationalism etc.

Rapid technological progress &
industrialisation
Growing national populations &
growing insistence that the citizen
owed a duty to defend the state
Warfare
Warfare
All came together in a military

revolution focused on mass conscript
armies of ideologically motivated
citizens, armed with mass-produced,
long-range weapons of incredible
killing power, and logistically sustained
by industrialised economies that could
maintain armies on distant fronts
almost indefinitely
Warfare
The Napoleonic legacy

Early 18th century characterised by
limited warfare; some factors:
Difficulties in both recruiting & retaining
soldiers military service not popular;
expensive to recruit & train soldiers
were too valuable to be thrown away;
Supply limitations & poorly developed
road networks
Warfare
1792 creation of the French Republic

revolutionary regime embraced a new
approach to the conduct of war,
including:
Creation of a citizen army (conscription);
Beginnings of economic regimentation &
large-scale war production, as well as
Ideological warfare & indoctrination
Warfare
Unlike limited warfare the purpose

of ideological war complete
overthrow of the enemy
Rather than minor territorial gains
objective of war became massive
gains or even outright annexation
French Revolution allowed France
to raise mass armies
Warfare
French revolution allowed France to

raise massive armies proved to be
decisive in the Napoleonic years
Warfare
Warfare
By 1812, Napoleon was able to invade

Russia with an army of almost 600,000
Huge armies new issues for
generals and strategists creation of
the corps system smaller groups of
armies, 50,000, own infantry, cavalry,
and artillery powerful enough to
defend against the enemy, small
enough to advance rapidly
Warfare
So how can you feed & supply such a

corps?
Pre-18th Century practice of live off the

land to forage ruthlessly in the
territories through which it marched
Leads to offensive war why ?
Warfare
Napoleon commanded armies that

could move rapidly enough to force
opponents to give battle
Deliberately sought battle to defeat an
enemy army would give pursuit and
destroy them
Strategy would allow him to occupy
and control the enemys resources &
leave them helpless to resist any
political demands
Warfare
The Industrialisation of War

19th Century, two important points:
1) modern technology applied to the
production of more sophisticated
weaponry; and
2) essentially civilian technologies
proved immensely important for the
future conduct of war
Warfare
Think of the possibility to store

tinned food easier to provide food
supplies for campaigning
One of the most important
technological developments at this
point in time railways
Supplies could be moved (relatively)
quickly in great quantities to the front
Warfare
By 1846 Prussia was able to move

an army corps, with all its equipment,
250 miles in two days instead of a 2
weeks march
Warfare
Not only rapid movement of troops

also remained fit & unexhausted
Able to move wounded troops
improving their chances of survival;
Easier replacements & reinforcements;
Warfare
1870 Franco-Prussian War

Prussia moved an army twice the size
of Napoleons at its height (over
1,000,000)
Much smaller French army (600,000),
which barely had time to mobilise,
simply overwhelmed,
Prussia is not a country with an army,
but an army with a country
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
Strategic value of railways soon

realised France moved 120,000
men to Italy in its 1859 war with Italy
Warfare
Warfare
Johnsons Valley Army rapid

movement to Manassas
Enabled the Confederacy to achieve
numerical parity with Union troops
Won the Battle of (First) Manassas,
A defeat might had led to an almost
immediate end of the Civil War
Warfare
The Union created the Military

Railway Department important role
in the victory against the Confederates
Warfare
Another civilian technology of military importance
was:
Warfare
Warfare
Political leaderships & commanders to

maintain communication with army
leaders over distances that would
previously have meant delays of days
or weeks in communicating orders;
Also the development of weapons
technology rifles artillery etc.
transformed both strategy and
tactics
What about colonial warfare?
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
Also think of it in terms of cavalry vs.

infantry, cavalry vs. rifles etc.
Warfare
Based on the Prussian wars, 1866

1870, European strategists became
convinced that:
Mass armies;
Rapidly transported to the military
theatre; and
Manoeuvring swiftly thereafter;
Would guarantee quick victory to the
side prepared to take the offensive
Warfare
Due to amongst others

technological developments, Europe
was heading towards total war
American Civil War ideological
struggle to the death between two
incompatible nationalisms, involving
the use of mass conscription, rifled
weapons, steamships, barbed wire,
and observation balloons
Warfare
General Sherman: we are not only

fighting hostile armies, but a hostile
people and must make old and young,
rich and poor, feel the hard hand of
war.
Warfare
Warfare
Naval Warfare
Napoleonic wars warships made of
wood and powered by the wind
Warfare
Changed during the next century,

warships increasingly equipped with:
Long-ranged rifled weapons (naval
artillery); and
(Steam) Engines that enabled them to
operate independently of the wind;
The application of armour plate soon
followed
Warfare
France led the creation &

modernisation of naval vessels
Great Britain reluctant to encourage
developments that might challenge its
naval supremacy
Many theorists held on to the concept
of naval power, however, many
theorists also started to see a shift
towards land power
Warfare
Sir Julian Corbett: sea power a means

to a political end; however,
Sea power had its limits, and a major
naval power, like G-B, had always
needed continental allies with land
power
Far more to maritime strategy than
battles trade protection, commerce
raiding, amphibious warfare &
transport of people (armies)
Warfare
Warfare
Total War
By 1914, the political, economic,
social, technological & doctrinal trends
were a recipe for disaster
Armies (states) were convinced of the
virtues of the Napoleonic warfare
mass armies, seeking out the
adversaries army, enveloping &
destroying it and then pursuing it
Warfare
Warfare
Germany, 7,000 motor vehicles,

726,000 horses and 150,000
wagons
No enveloping of the enemy;
powerful defensive weapons; trenches
and barbed wire; and resources that
the railways could deliver from the
mobilised industrial economy
Enemy had to be worn down
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
Not just new technological

advancements that led to greater,
more powerful/dangerous wars and
weaponry,
The geography of war increased in
scale and scope as well no
manoeuvring room in the main theatre
of operations
Strategy open more battles to
increase the pressures
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
In addition, greater willingness to

deliberately target non-combatants
Unrestricted submarine warfare
(naval) blockade of Germany Long-
range bombing of (enemy) cities by air
forces;
Basically any object whose
destruction promised to weaken the
war effort of the enemy legitimate
target
Warfare
Warfare
Totality in warfare assessed by a nr.

of elements:
Type of weapons employed;
Strategy and tactics used;
Proportion of a States resources used;
The degree of legitimate targets;
The social & cultural pressures
towards unrestricted warfare
Warfare
First world war elements of totality

even more prominent in World War II
mobilisation of the war effort to the
fullest extent
Conscription not only men, but also

women not just in the military
(generally non-combatant roles), but in
industries, agriculture etc.
Warfare
Warfare
(regular) industries & merchant navies

all under government control for the
war effort Rationing to conserve
vital (re)sources for the war effort
Germany slave labour Systematic
use of propaganda & censorship;
promotion of nationalism; restriction
or internment of groups deemed to
have suspect loyalties
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
Some final words on technological

advancements:
Battle of Britain radar
Battle of the Atlantic Anti-Submarine
Detection Technology (ASDIC)
sonar
Nuclear weapons
German technological breakthroughs
became operational too late
Warfare
Ultimately mass & industrial power

proved ultimately decisive;
Also the strategic problem of a two-
front war
Warfare
In World War II bombing of civilians

was a primary war-fighting strategy;
Opponents cities & populations
targeted to break the will to resist
Also industries productive capacity
to undermine the ability to operate
effectively
Hiroshima & Nagasaki
Warfare
Warfare
Naval power all-out submarine

warfare
Great Britain & Japan, as islands
nations, depended on resources
imported by sea
The Battle of the Atlantic
The Battle of the Pacific
Warfare
Early stages of the war German

land-based air power compensated for
its naval weakness
British naval losses to German air
attack in the Crete campaign
equivalent to a major fleet action;
However once Allied fleets obtained
anti-aircraft weapons
Warfare
Early phases World War II

demonstrated that obtaining air
superiority both on land and at sea
had become an essential prerequisite
to successful military operations
Ultimately, World War II combined
arms or joint warfare key to
success in modern industrial war
Warfare
Amphibious operations crucial in

the (later) phases of World War II
In the European Theatre of Operations
the invasions of North Africa, Sicily,
Italy and France
In the Pacific Theatre of Operations
the island-hopping campaign
outflanked & overcame Japanese
power
Warfare
In both the antisubmarine &

amphibious campaign role of the
aircraft carrier of decisive importance
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
World War II five major aircraft

carrier battles in the Pacific war as
well as 22 other major naval
engagements
In Europe sea power crucial, but not
decisive in the Pacific, it was
Warfare
Warfare
Nuclear Weapons and Revolutionary

Warfare
World War II total war at its peak;
Nuclear weapons limited war;
Soviet-Union & USA tens of
thousands of nuclear weapons during
the Cold War;
Full-scale war mutually suicidal
Warfare
Warfare
Warfare
Policy of restraint
Not just between the USA & the Soviet
Union, but also
Between its allies not to be dragged
into a war by them;
To avoid taking any military actions
that risked escalating to a full-scale
conflict that might go nuclear
Warfare
Full-scale nuclear war M.A.D.

mutually assured destruction
Still strategic doctrine of deterrence
Reluctance of the most powerful states
to employ techniques of total war
created opportunities for opponents to
employ asymmetrical tactics and
strategies;
Think of Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan
Warfare
Cold war period characterised by

smaller-scale conventional wars &
campaigns of (counter-)insurgency
Conventional wars limited in their
outcomes & duration;
Inter-state warfare/conflicts
More towards civil instead of
international conflicts
Warfare
Food for thought

Has war between major powers
become obsolete? Why, or why not?
Postmodern war: how will the

transition to postmodernity be
expected to influence warfare in the
decades to come?

005 - Geopolitics - The Evolution of Modern Warfare - ROHarmsen

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005 - Geopolitics - The Evolution of Modern Warfare - ROHarmsen

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Geopolitics: the

Modern warfare generally, the forms

Rise of ideologies nationalism etc.

All came together in a military

The Napoleonic legacy

1792 creation of the French Republic

Unlike limited warfare the purpose

French revolution allowed France to

By 1812, Napoleon was able to invade

So how can you feed & supply such a

Pre-18th Century practice of live off the

Napoleon commanded armies that

The Industrialisation of War

Think of the possibility to store

By 1846 Prussia was able to move

Not only rapid movement of troops

1870 Franco-Prussian War

Strategic value of railways soon

Johnsons Valley Army rapid

The Union created the Military

Political leaderships & commanders to

Also think of it in terms of cavalry vs.

Based on the Prussian wars, 1866

Due to amongst others

General Sherman: we are not only

Changed during the next century,

France led the creation &

Sir Julian Corbett: sea power a means

Germany, 7,000 motor vehicles,

Not just new technological

In addition, greater willingness to

Totality in warfare assessed by a nr.

First world war elements of totality

Conscription not only men, but also

(regular) industries & merchant navies

Some final words on technological

Ultimately mass & industrial power

In World War II bombing of civilians

Naval power all-out submarine

Early stages of the war German

Early phases World War II

Amphibious operations crucial in

In both the antisubmarine &

World War II five major aircraft

Nuclear Weapons and Revolutionary

Full-scale nuclear war M.A.D.

Cold war period characterised by

Food for thought

Postmodern war: how will the

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