Biomedical

Instrumentation

Chapter 6 in
Introduction to Biomedical
Equipment Technology

By Joseph Carr and John Brown

Signal Acquisition
Medical Instrumentation typically entails
monitoring a signal off the body which is
analog, converting it to an electrical
signal, and digitizing it to be analyzed
by the computer.
Types of Sensors:
Electrodes: acquire an electrical signal

Transducers: acquire a non-electrical

signal (force, pressure, temp etc) and
converts it to an electrical signal
Active vs Passive Sensors:
Active Sensor:
Requires an external AC or DC electrical
source to power the device
Strain gauge, blood pressure sensor

Passive Sensor:
Provides it own energy or derives energy
from phenomenon being studied
Thermocouple
Sensor Error Sources
Error:
Difference between measured value
and true value.
5 Categories of Errors:
1. Insertion Error
2. Application Error
3. Characteristic Error
4. Dynamic Error
5. Environmental Error
Insertion Error:
Error occurring when inserting a
sensor
Application Error:
Errors caused by Operator
Characteristic Error:
Errors inherent to Device
Dynamic Error:
Most instruments are calibrated in static
conditions if you are reading a thermistor it
takes time to change its value. If you read
this value to quickly an error will result.
Environmental Error:
Errors caused by environment
heat, humidity
Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity:
Slope of output characteristic curve y/ x;
Minimum input of physical parameter will
create a detectable output change
Blood pressure transducer may have a
sensitivity of 10 uV/V/mmHg so you will see a
10 uV change for every V or mmHg applied to
the system.
 Output Output

Input Input

Which is more sensitive? The left side one

because youll have a larger change in y for a
given change in x
Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity Error = Departure from ideal
slope of a characteristic curve
Ideal Curve
Output

Input

Sensitivity Error
Sensor Terminology
Range = Maximum and Minimum values
of applied parameter that can be
measured.
If an instrument can read up to 200 mmHg
and the actual reading is 250 mmHg then you
have exceeded the range of the instrument.
Sensor Terminology
Dynamic Range: total range of sensor for
minimum to maximum. Ie if your instrument
can measure from -10V to +10 V your dynamic
range is 20V
Precision = Degree of reproducibility denoted
as the range of one standard deviation
Resolution = smallest detectable incremental
change of input parameter that can be
detected
Accuracy
Accuracy = maximum difference that
will exist between the actual value and
the indicated value of the sensor

Xi Xo
Offset Error
Offset error = output that will exist
when it should be zero
The characteristic curve had the same
sensitive slope but had a y intercept

Output Output
Input Input
Offset Error
Zero offset error
Linearity

Linearity = Extent to which actual

measure curved or calibration
curve departs from ideal curve.
Linearity
Nonlinearity (%) = (Din(Max) / INfs) * 100%
Nonlinearity is percentage of nonlinear
Din(max) = maximum input deviation
INfs = maximum full-scale input
Full Scale Input

Output Din(Max)

Input
Hysteresis
Hysteresis = measurement of how sensor
changes with input parameter based on
direction of change
Hysteresis
The value B can be represented by 2 values of F(x), F1
and F2. If you are at point P then you reach B by the
value F2. If you are at point Q then you reach B by
value of F1.

Output = F(x) P
F2
F1 Input = x
B
Q
Response Time

Response Time: Time required for a sensor

output to change from previous state to final
settle value within a tolerance band of correct
new value denoted in red can be different in
rising and decaying directions
F(t) Tresponse Tolerance Band
100%
70% Rising Response Time

Ton Time
Response Time

Time Constant: Depending on the source is

defined as the amount of time to reach 0% to
70% of final value. Typically denoted for
capacitors as T = R C (Resistance *
Capacitance) denoted in Blue
F(t) Tresponse Tolerance Band
100%
70% Rising Response Time

Ton Time
Response Time

Tdecay
F(t)
Decaying Response Time

Toff Time

Convergence Eye Movement the inward

turning of the eyes have a different response
time than divergence eye movements the
outward turning of the eyes which would be
the decay response time
 Dynamic Linearity
Measure of a sensors ability to follow rapid
changes in the input parameters. Difference
between solid and dashed curves is the non-
linearity as depicted by the higher order x terms

F(x)* = ax + bx2+cx4+ . . . +K F(x)* = ax + bx3+cx5+ . . . +K

Output Output
F(x) F(x)
K K
Input X Input X
 Dynamic Linearity
Asymmetric = F(x) != |F(-x)| where F(x)* is
asymmetric around linear curve F(x) then
F(x) = ax + bx2+cx4+ . . . +K offsetting for K or
you could assume K = 0
Symmetrical = F(x) = |F(-x)| where F(x) * is
symmetric around linear curve F(x) then
F(x) = ax +bx3 + cx5 +. . . + K offsetting for K or
you could assume K =0
 Frequency Response of Ideal
and Practical System
When you look at the frequency response of an instrument,
ideally you want a wideband flat frequency response.

Av Av = Vo/Vi
1.0

Frequency (w) radians per second

Frequency Response of Ideal
and Practical System

In practice, you have attenuation of

lower and higher frequencies
Av Av = Vo/Vi
1.0
0.707

FL FH
Frequency (w) radians per second

FL and FH are known as the 3 dB points in voltage systems.

Examples of Filters
Ideal Filter has sharp cutoffs and a flat
pass band
Most filters attenuate upper and lower
frequencies
Other filters attenuate upper and lower
frequencies and are not flat in the pass
band
Electrodes for Biophysical
Sensing

Bioelectricity: naturally occurring current

that exists because living organisms
have ions in various quantities
Electrodes for Biophysical
Sensing

Ionic Conduction: Migration of ions-

positively and negatively charge
molecules throughout a region.
Extremely nonlinear but if you limit the region
can be considered linear
Electrodes for Biophysical
Sensing

Electronic Conduction: Flow of electrons

under the influence of an electrical field
Bioelectrodes
Bioelectrodes: class of sensors that
transduce ionic conduction to electronic
conduction so can process by electric
circuits
Used to acquire ECG, EEG, EMG, etc.
Bioelectrodes

3 Types of electrodes:
Surface (in vivo) outside body
Indwelling Macroelectrodes (in vivo)
Microelectrodes (in vitro) inside body
 Bioelectrodes
Electrode Potentials:
Skin is electrolytic and can be modeled as
electrolytic solutions

Metal
Electrode

Electrolytic Solution where Skin is electrolytic and can be

modeled as saline
Electrodes in Solution

Have metallic electrode immersed in

electrolytic solution once metal probe is in
electrolytic solution it:
1. Discharges metallic ions into solution
2. Some ions in solution combine with metallic
electrodes
3. Charge gradient builds creating a potential
difference or you have an electrode potential or
cell potential
Electrodes in Solution

2 cells A and B, A has 2 positive ions

A B And B has 3 positive ions thus have a
++ +++ Potential difference of 3 2 = 1 where B
is more positive than A
Electrodes
Two reactions take place at
electrode/electrolyte interface:
Oxidizing Reaction: Metal -> electrons +
metal ions
Reduction Reaction : Electrons + metal
ions -> Metal
Electrodes
Electrode Double Layer: formed by 2 parallel
layers of ions of opposite charge caused by
ions migrating from 1 side of region or
another; ionic differences are the source of
the electrode potential or half-cell potential
(Ve).

Metal A Vae Vbe Metal B

Electrolytic Solution
Electrodes
If metals are different you will have differential
potential sometimes called an electrode offset
potential.
Metal A = gold Vae = 1.50V and Metal B = silver
Vbe = 0.8V then Vab = 1.5V 0.8 V = 0.7V (Table
6-1 in book page 96)

Metal A Vae Vbe Metal B

Electrolytic Solution
Electrodes
Two general categories of material
combinations:
Perfectly polarized or perfectly
nonreversible electrode: no net transfer of
charge across metal/electrolyte interface
Perfectly Nonpolarized or perfectly
reversible electrode: unhindered transfer
of charge between metal electrode and the
electrode
Generally select a reversible electrode such as
Ag-AgCl (silver-silver chloride)
 Electrode A C1a Vea
- +
Cellular Rsa R1a
Resistance
Rc
Mass
Rt - Vo
Cellular Tissue Vd +
Potentials Resistance
Electrode B
C1b
Veb
- +
Rsb
R1b

Ionic Conduction Electronic Conduction

Rt= internal resistance of body which is low
Vd = Differential voltage Vd R1A and R1B = resistance of electrodes
Rsa and Rsb = skin resistance at electrode A C1A and C1B = capacitance of electrodes
and B
Electrode Potentials cause recording
Problems
cell potential ~ 1.5 V while biopotentials are
usually 1000 times less (ECG = 1-2 mV and
EEG is 50 uV) thus have a tremendous
difference between DC cell potential and
biopotential
Strategies to overcome DC component
Differential DC amplifier to acquire signal thus the DC
component will cancel out
Counter Offset-Voltage to cancel half-cell potential
AC couple input of amplifier (DC will not pass through)
ie capacitively couple the signal into the circuit
Electrode Potentials cause recording
Problems
Strategies to overcome DC component
Differential DC amplifier to acquire signal thus
the DC component will cancel out
Counter Offset-Voltage to cancel half-cell
potential
AC couple input of amplifier (DC will not pass
through)
Capacitively couple the signal into the circuit
 Medical Surface Electrodes
Typical Medical Surface Electrode:
Use conductive gel to reduce impedance
between electrode and skin
Schematic:

Binding Spot
Pin-Tip
Connector Shielded Wire
Electrode Surface
Medical Surface Electrodes
Have an Ag-AgCl contact button at top of
hollow column filled with gel
Gel filled column holds actual metallic
electrode off surface of skin and decreases
movement artifact
Typical ECG arrangement is to have 3 ECG
electrodes (2 differentials signals and a
reference electrode)
Problems with Surface
Electrodes
1. Adhesive does not stick for a long time on
sweaty skin
2. Can not put electrode on bony prominences
3. Movement or motion artifact significant
problem with long term monitoring results in
a gross change in potential
4. Electrode slippage if electrode slips then
thickness of jelly changes abruptly which is
reflected as a change in electrode
impedance and electrode offset potential
(slight change in potential)
Potential Solutions for Surface
Electrodes Problems
1. Additional Tape
2. Rough surface electrode that digs past scaly
outer layer of skin typically not comfortable for
patients.
 Other Types of Electrodes
Needle Electrodes: inserted into tissue
immediately beneath skin by puncturing skin on an
angle note infection is a problem.
Indwelling Electrodes: Inserted into layers
beneath skin -> typically tiny exposed metallic
contact at end of catheter usually threaded
through patients vein to measure intracardiac
ECG to measure high frequency characteristics
such as signal at the bundle of His
 Other Types of Electrodes
EEG Electrodes: can be a needle electrode but
usually a 1 cm diameter concave disc of gold or
silver and is held in place by a thick paste that is
highly conductive sometimes secured by a
headband
Microelectrode
Microelectrode: measure biopotential at
cellular level where microelectrode
penetrates cell that immersed in an
infinite fluid
Saline.
Microelectrode

Two typical types:

1. Metallic Contact
2. Fluid Filled
 Microelectrode Equivalent
Circuit

R1 RS = Spreading Resistance
of the electrode and is
RS a function of tip
C1 C2
Vo diameter
V1 R1 and C1 are result of the
effects of
electrode/cell interface
C2 = Electrode Capacitance
 Calculation for Resistance Rs
Rs in metallic microelectrodes
without glass coating:
where Rs = resistance ohms
P ()
Rs P = Resistivity of the infinite
4r
solution outside electrode =
70cm 70 cm for physiological
Rs

43.14 0.5 *10-4 cm saline
r = tip radius ( ~0.5 um for 1
111.4 K um electrode) = 0.5 x10-4
cm
 Calculation for Resistance Rs
Rs of glass coated metallic
microelectrode is 1-2 order of magnitude
higher:
where Rs = resistance
2P ohms ()
Rs
r P = Resistivity of the
infintie solution outside
23.7cm electrode) = 3.7 cm for 3
3.140.1 * 10-4 cm 3.14 180
Rs
M KCl
r = tip radius typically 0.1 u
13.5M m = 0.1 x 10-4 cm
= taper angle (~ / 180)
Capacitance of Microelectrode
Capacitance of C2 has units pF/cm

C2
0.55e
R
ln
r

Where e = dielectric constant which for

glass = 4
R = outside tip radius
r = inside tip radius
Capacitance of Microelectrode
Find C of glass microelectrode if the outer radius is
0.2 um and the inner radius = 0.15 um

C2
0.55e

(0.55)( 4)
7.7
pF
R 0.2 m cm
ln ln
r 0.15m
Transducers and other Sensors

Transducers: sensors and are defined as

a device that converts energy from some
one form (temp., pressure, lights etc) into
electrical energy where as electrodes
directly measure electrical information
 Wheatstone Bridge
Es
A R1
R3
R1 R3

EC
+ Eo - ED
Es + EC + Eo - ED
-
R2 R4

R4
R2 B
Basic Wheatstone Bridge uses one resistor in
each of four arms where battery excites the
bridge connected across 2 opposite resistor
junctions (A and B). The bridge output Eo
appears across C and D junction.
Finding output voltage to a
Wheatstone Bridge
Ex: A wheatstone bridge is excited by a 12V dc source
and has the following resistances R1 = 1.2K R2 = 3 K
R3 = 2.2 K ; and R4 = 5 K ; find Eo

R2 R4
Eo Es -
R1 + R 2 R 3 + R4
3 * 10 3 5 * 10 3
Eo 12V -

1.2 * 10 + 3 * 10
3 3

2.2 * 10 3 + 5 * 10 3

3 5
Eo 12V - 0.24V
4.2 7.2
Finding output voltage to a
Wheatstone Bridge

A wheatstone bridge is excited by a 12V dc source

and has the following resistances R1 = 1.2K R2 = 3
K R3 = 2.2 K ; and R4 = 5 K ; find Eo

Eo EC - ED
R2
EC Es
R1 + R 2
R4
ED Es
R 3 + R 4
 R2 R4
Eo Es -
R1 + R 2 R 3 + R4
3 * 10 3 5 * 10 3
Eo 12V -

1.2 * 10 + 3 * 10 2.2 * 10 + 5 * 10
3 3 3 3


3 5
Eo 12V - 0.24V
4.2 7.2
Null Condition of Wheatstone Bridge

Null Condition is met when Eo = 0 can

happen in 2 ways:
Battery = 0 (not desirable)
R1 / R2 = R3/ R4
Null Condition of Wheatstone Bridge
When R1 = 2K; R2 = 1K ; R3 = 10K ; R4
= 5K R2 R4

R1 + R 2 R3 + R 4
R 2R3 + R 4 R 4R1 + R 2
R 2 * R3 + R 2 * R 4 R 4 * R1 + R 4 * R 2
R 2 * R3 R 4 * R1
R1 R3

R2 R4
2 K 10 K
2
1K 5K
Null Condition of Wheatstone Bridge

Key with null condition is if you change one of

the resistances to be a transducer that
changes based on input stimulus then Eo will
also change according to input stimulus
Strain Gauges

Definition: resistive element that

changes resistance proportional to an
applied mechanical strain
Strain Gauges
Compression = decrease in length by DL and
an increase in cross sectional area.

L = length Rest Condition

L - DL = length Compression
Strain Gauges
Tension = increase in length by DL and a
decrease in cross section area.
L = length Rest Condition

L + DL = length Tension
Resistance of a metallic bar is
given in length and area

pL
R
A
where
R = Resistance units = ohms ()
= resistivity constant unique to type of
material used in bar units = ohm meter (m)
L = length in meters (m)
A = Cross sectional area in meters2 (m2 )
 Resistance of a metallic bar is
given in length and area
Example: find the resistance of a copper bar that has a cross
sectional area of 0.5 mm2 and a length = 250 mm note the resistivity
of copper is 1.7 x 10-8m

250mm 1m

L 1000mm 0.0085
R 1.7 *10-8 m 2

A

0.5mm2 1m

1000 mm
Piezoresistivity
Piezoresistivity = change in resistance for a
given change in size and shape denoted as h

L + DL
Resistance in tension = R + h
A - DA

Resistance increases in tension

L = length; L = change in L; = resistivity
A = Area; A = change in A
 L - DL
Resistance in compression = R - h
A + DA

Resistance decreases in compression

L = length; L = change in L; = resistivity
A = Area; A = change in A

Note: Textbook forgot the in equations 6-28 and 6-29 on page 110
Example of Piezoresistivity

Thin wire has a length of 30 mm and a cross

sectional area of 0.01 mm2 and a resistance of
1.5.
A force is applied to the wire that increases the
length by 10 mm and decreases cross sectional
area by 0.0027 mm2
Find the change in resistance h.
Note: = resistivity = 5 x 10-7 m
Example of Piezoresistivity
L + DL
R + h
A - DA

(30 + 10)mm *
1 m
-7 1000 mm
R + h 5 *10 m 2
(0.01 - 0.0027)mm2 * 1m

1000 mm
1.5 + h 2.74
h 1.24
Example of Piezoresistivity
Note: Change in Resistance will be
approximately linear for small changes in
L as long as L<<L.
If a force is applied where the modulus
of elasticity is exceeded then the wire
can become permanently damaged and
then it is no longer a transducer.
Gauge Factor

Gauge Factor (GF) = a method of comparing one

transducer to a similar transducer
Gauge Factor

DR
GF R
DL
L
where
GF = Gauge Factor unitless
R = change in resistance ohms ()
R = unstrained resistance ohms ()
L = change in length meters (m)
L = unstrained length meters (m)
Gauge Factor
DR
GF R


DL L
Where strain which is unitless
GF gives relative sensitivity of a strain gauge where the
greater the change in resistance per unit length the
greater the sensitivity of element and the greater the
gauge factor.
 Example of Gauge Factor
Have a 20 mm length of wire used as a string gauge
and has a resistance of 150 .
When a force is applied in tension the resistance
changes by 2 and the length changes by 0.07 mm.
Find the gauge factor:

DR 2
GF R
150 3.71
DL 0.07mm
L 20mm
Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded

Unbonded Strain Gauge : resistance

element is a thin wire of special alloy
stretch taut between two flexible
supports which is mounted on flexible
diaphram or drum head.
 Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
When a Force F1 is applied to
diaphram it will flex in a manner that
spreads support apart causing an
increase in tension and resistance
that is proportional to the force
applied.
When a Force F2 is applied to
diaphram the support ends will more
close and then decrease the tension
in taut wire (compression force) and
decrease resistance will decrease in
amount proportional to applied force
Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded

Bonded Strain Gauge: made by cementing a

thin wire or foil to a diaphragm therefore
flexing diaphragm deforms the element
causing changes in electrical resistance in
same manner as unbonded strain gauge
 Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
When a Force F1 is applied to
diaphram it will flex in a
manner that causes an
increase in tension of wire
then the increase in resistance
is proportional to the force
applied.
When a Force F2 is applied to
diaphram that cause a
decrease the tension in taut
wire (compression force) then
the decrease in resistance will
decrease in amount
proportional to applied force
Comparison of Bonded vs. Unbonded
Strain Gauges

1. Unbonded strain gauge can be built

where its linear over a wide range of
applied force but they are delicate
2. Bonded strain gauge are linear over a
smaller range but are more rugged
Bonded strain gauges are typically used
because designers prefer ruggedness.
 Typical Configurations
A
R1 = SG1 R3 = SG3

ES + C
Vo
D
-

R4 = SG4
R2 = SG2 B

Electrical Circuit Mechanical

Configuration

4 strain gauges (SG) in Wheatstone Bridge:

 Strain Gauge Example
Using the configuration in the previous slide
where 4 strain gauges are placed in a
wheatstone bridge where the bridge is
balanced when no force is applied,
Assume a force is applied so that R1 and R4
are in tension and R2 and R3 are in
+ compression.
Derive the equation to depict the change in
voltage across the bridge and find the output
voltage when each resistor is 200 , the
change of resistance is 10 and the source
voltage is 10 V
 Strain Gauge Example

Circuit Derivation:
A R 2 R 4
Eo Es -
R1 = R +h R3= R-h R1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4

Es
Eo Es
R - h
-
R + h

C +
- R + h + R - h R - h + R + h
+ Eo
D
-
R - h R + h - 2h h
Eo Es - Es - Es
2R 2 R 2 R R
R2 = R - h R4 = R +h
B 10
Eo -10V -0.5V
200

Note: Text book has wrongly stated that tension decreases R and compression increases R on page 112
Transducer Sensitivity
Transducer Sensitivity = rating that
allows us to predict the output voltage
from knowledge of the excitation
voltage and the value of the applied
stimulus units = V/V*unit of applied
stimulus
Transducer Sensitivity
Example if you have a force transducer calibrated in
grams (unit of mass) which allows calibration of force
transducer then sensitivity denoted as = V/V*g
(another ex = V/V*mmHg)
Transducer Sensitivity
To calculate Output Potential use the
following equations:
Eo * E * F
where
Eo = output potential in Volts (V)
E = excitation voltage
= sensitivity V/V*g
F = applied force in grams (g)
Transducer Sensitivity
Example: Transducer has a sensitivity of 10 V/V*g,
predict the output voltage for an applied force of 15 g
and 5 V of excitation.

10V
Eo EF 5V 15 g 750V
Vg
note book has typo where writes V/V/g for sensitivity
Inductance Transducers
Inductance Transducers: inductance L can
be varied easily by physical movement of a
permeable core within an inductor 3 basic
forms:
Single Coil
Reactive Wheatstone Bridge
Linear Voltage Differential Transformer LVDT:
LVDT:

Diaphragm

L2
AC Excitation L1

Core
External
L3 Load

Axis of Motion
Capacitance Transducers
Quartz Pressure Sensors: capacitively
based where sensor is made of fused
quartz
Capacitive Transducers: Capacitance C
varies with stimulus
Capacitive Transducers:
Three examples:
Solid Metal disc parallel to flexible metal
diaphragm separated by air or vacuum (similar to
capacitor microphone) when force is applied they
will move closer or further away.
Stationary metal plate and rotating moveable plate:
as you rotate capacitance will increase or decrease
Differential Capacitance: 1 Moveable metal Plate
placed between 2 stationary Places where you
have 2 capacitors: C1 between P1 and P3 and C2
between P2 and P3 where when a force is applied
to diaphragm P3 moves closer to one plate or vice
versa
Temperature Transducers

3 Common Types:
Thermocouples
Thermistors
Solid State PN Junctions
Thermocouple:

Thermocouple: 2 dissimilar conductor joined

together at 1 end.
The work functions of the 2 materials are different
thus a potential is generated when junction is
heated (roughly linear over wide range)
Thermistors:
Thermistors: Resistors that change their value
based on temperature where
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) device will
increase its resistance with an increase in
temperature
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) device will
decrease its resistance with an increase in
temperature
Most thermistors have nonlinear curve when plotted
over a wide range but can assume linearity if within a
limited range
 BJT = Bipolar Junction Transistor
IC
Transistor = invented in 1947
by Bardeen, Brattain and +
Schockley of Bell Labs. VCB +
IB - VCE
+ -
B = Base VBE
C = Collector -
IE
E = Emitter
IE = I B + I C
BJT = Bipolar Junction Transistor
Transistor rely on the free travel of
electrons through crystalline solids called
semiconductors. Transistors usually are
configured as an amplifier or a switch.
 Solid State PN Temperature
Transducers
Solid State PN Junction Diode: the VCC+
base emitter voltage of a transistor is
proportional to temperature. For a + +
differential pair the output voltage is:
VCB
Ic1 Ic2 VCB
-
+
KT ln I C1 +
I DVBE
C2

VBE VBE
DVBE -
q -
ccs1 ccs2
K = Boltzmans Constant = 1.38 x10-23J/K
T = Temperature in Kelvin
IC1 = Collector current of BJT 1 mA VEE-
IC2 = Collector current of BJT 2 mA
q = Coulombs charge = 1.6 x10 -19 coulombs/electron
Example of temperature transducer
Find the output voltage of a temperature transducer in the
previous slide if IC1 = 2 mA; IC2 = 1 mA and the temperature
is 37 oC
I C1
KT ln
I
C2
DVBE
q

1.38 *10 - 23
J / K 37 + 273 K ln
2mA

DVBE 1mA
1.6 *10 -19 Coulombs
DVBE 0.0185V
Homework
Read Chapter 7
Chapter 6 Problems: 1, 3 to 6, 9
Problem 1: resistivity = 1.7 * 10-8m
Problem 4: sensitivity = 50 V/(V*mmHg)
Problem 4: 1 torr = 1 mmHg
Problem 6: sensitivity = 50 V/(V*g)
 Review
What are two types of sensors?
List 5 categories of error
How do we quantify sensors?
What is an electrode?
How do you calculate Rs and C2 of a microelectrode that
is metal with and without glass coating?
What is a transducer?
What is a Wheatstone Bridge? How do you derive the
output voltage
Find resistance of a metallic bar for a given length and
area
How does resistance change in tension and in
compression and how do you calculate resistance
 Review
How do you find resistance change in piezoresistive
device
How do you determine gauge factor
What is the definition of a strain gauge and what is
difference between bonded and unbonded strain gauge.
Determine the output potential given a transducers
sensitivity.
What are inductance, capacitance, and temperature
transducers?
How do you calculate the temperature for a solid state PN
Junction Diode?