Tech Info-Arch

Technical information architecture
I. Organizational systems
Types of schemes
Types of structures
II. Labeling
Types of labels
III. Navigation
The research
Navigation schemes
IV. Building a better web site
Home page usability
Advanced Information Architecture- Fall 02

Organizing and providing access to information is a basic
IA function
Must be able to deal with the ambiguity of language
Classification is a difficult task
Heterogeneity
A collection of unrelated elements with different
levels of granularity
These should not be placed at the same levels of the
hierarchy
Idiosincracy
People seem to have unique organizational schemes

Organizational schemes
Defines shared characteristics of content
Exact schemes
Well defined and mutually exclusive sections
Alphabetical
Chronological
Geographical
Ambiguous schemes
Divided into sections that may overlap
Useful when we are looking for something and we are
not sure

Ambiguous schemes
Topic
Important to cover the breadth of the content
Should represent the major subject headings
Task
Focus is processes, functions, and tasks
Useful when the main purpose is to have people do
something
Audience
Divide the content into smaller audience-specific areas
Important to understand the needs of these audiences
May be open or closed
Organizational schemes
Metaphor
This is risky
Hybrids
Also risky because the mix can be confusing
Organizational structure
Constrains the ways in which people can navigate the
site
Top down hierarchy
Taxonomy: a hierarchical arrangement of categories
Mutually exclusive subdivisions
Clear parent-child relationships
Hierarchies
Balancing the relationship between exclusivity and
inclusiveness
Crosslisting is possible in a polyhierarchical
taxonomy
Listing items in more than one category
Balancing breadth and depth in the taxonomy
There are three main options
Narrow and deep
Broad and shallow
Hub and spokes
The choice should be determined by the needs of the
major stakeholders
Narrow and deep

Broad and shallow

Hub and spokes

Database driven
This is a bottom up approach
used in dynamically generated sites
The use of relational databases means that metadata
becomes more important
Careful use of metadata supports browsing and
searching
A structured metadata scheme involves working with
entity relationship diagrams (ERD)
These define entities, their attributes, and relations
among them
Allows automatic index generation
Searching through specific fields

Types of schemes
Types of structures
II. Labeling
Types of labels
III. Navigation
The research
Navigation schemes
Home page usability

II. Labeling
Types of labels
A label provides a shorthand representation of the sites
organization and content
The challenge is to use terms that are meaningful to the
audience that accurately reflects the sites content
Labels should represent and clearly differentiate among
major content and functional categories
They should avoid jargon
They should make a good impression on the audience
since they represent the site owners
Good labeling is a major component in the sites usability

Types of labels
Contextual links
Labels leading to other pages or within the same page
These should be developed systematically
They should draw meaning from the surrounding
context when possible
May require working with content authors
Headings
To describe the chunks of information that follow
Can establish hierarchies, typically though parent-child
relations
Makes use of design elements to represent relations

Within navigation systems
Consistency is important here
The same label can sometimes be used to represent
different types of information
News can refer to site updates here and press releases
there
Scope notes are useful to clarify the particular use
Index terms
Making use of keywords, metadata, or controlled
vocabularies as labels
Supports browsing and provides an overview, especially
when used in a site index

Iconic labels
Graphics must be used carefully
Conveying meaning may be difficult with a cross-cultural
audience
Designing labels
It is important to consider the sites content, audience,
and context when creating a labeling system
Try to keep the scope narrow
Make sure that the system is consistent
Predictability helps it to become invisible
Try not to mix levels of granularity

Types of schemes
Types of structures
II. Labeling
Types of labels
III. Navigation
The research
Navigation schemes
Home page usability

III. Navigation
Information seeking on the web
What do we know about information seeking on the web?
This will aid in the design of usable navigation
We know its more complex than the standard model of IR
Document Surrogate System Query Need
Output
Relevance judgment
This model has been roundly criticized
Kalbach, J. 92001). Designing for Information Foragers: A Behavioral

Model for Information Seeking on the World Wide Web. Internetworking
3(3).
http://www.internettg.org/newsletter/dec00/article_information_foragers
.html
There are alternative approaches:
Dervins sense-making
Main components: user situations, gaps in knowledge,
and bridging (information seeking and use
Belkins anomalous states of knowledge (ASK)
We cant easily formulate queries or find what we need
because we dont know what we dont know
The challenge is to adapt systems to ASK
Taylors value-added approach
Focus is on the users problems
Important criteria are the perceived utility and value a
user gets from a system

The research tells us that:
Failures in IR are due to poor system design, not user
error
Online search strategies change rapidly and searches
evolve as users learn more about what is available
User must be able to properly interact and negotiate with
systems to meet their information needs
Searchers constantly weigh the potential information
gained against the cost of performing a task necessary to
find information
An important design challenge is saving users time
Information seeking on the web has some unique
attributes, but can be explained by traditional models of
behavior

How do we search for information online?
Bates berry picking model:
We traverse information space in a non-linear way
We move from resource to resource, varying search
strategies rapidly
Browsing and searching complementary activities
As we move, our information need may change based on
what we learn
We are involved in a negotiation with the system
This means that flexibility and user control are critical
Users must be able to interact naturally and intuitively
with a system

Pirolli and Cards information foraging
This is based on foraging theories in biology and
anthropology
It emphasizes our ability to calculate the value of our
searching on the fly
We calculate trade-offs in the value of information
gained against the cost of performing the task
necessary to find information
Foraging refers to the strategies we use in searching for
information
It focuses on our situational adaptation to our
environments
The design challenges are to facilitate finding and
retrieving while minimizing time on task

Spools scent of information
To forage efficiently we need to have a sense of where
we are going and why
The design of a navigation system should provide us
with an accurate scent so that we can follow it to our
destination
Ellis model of information seeking
Starting
Identifying relevant sources of interest
Chaining
Following and connecting new leads found in an initial
source

Ellis model (cont)
Browsing
Scanning contents of identified sources for subject
affinity
Differentiating
Filtering and assessing sources for usefulness
Monitoring
Keeping abreast of developments in a given subject
area
Extracting
Systematically working through a given source for
material of interest

Choo and Turnbells model of information behaviors on the
web
Uses Ellis model of information behaviors
Starting
Identifying relevant sources of interest
Typically uses familiar pages and tools
Chaining
Following and connecting new leads found in an initial
source
Backward chaining:when pointers or references from an
initial source are followed
Forward chaining: identifies and follows up on other
sources that refer to an initial source or document

Ellis model (cont)
Browsing
Scanning contents of identified sources for subject
affinity
Looking through ToCs, title lists, subject headings,
names of organizations or persons
Differentiating
Filtering and assessing sources for usefulness
Monitoring
Keeping up on developments in a given area
Extracting
Systematically working through a given source

They add four types of information seeking behavior
Undirected viewing
We are exposed to information with no specific
informational need in mind
The purpose is to scan broadly for signs of change
Many and varied sources of information are used, and
large amounts of information are screened
Conditioned viewing
We view certain types of information or selected topics
The purpose is to evaluate the significance of the
information encountered in order to assess its impact
We are assessing the significance of developments in
those areas

And
Informal search
We look for information to deepen our knowledge and
understanding of a specific issue
It is a relatively limited and unstructured effort
The purpose is to gather information about an issue to
determine the need for action
Formal search
We make a planned effort to obtain specific information
about an issue
It is structured according to a pre-established
procedure or methodology
The purpose is to systematically retrieve information to
provide a basis for decision making
Sources:
Bates, M.J. (1989). The design of browsing and berrypicking techniques
for the online search interface. Online Review, 13, 407-424.
Belkin, N.J. (1980). Anomalous states of knowledge as the basis for
information retrieval. Canadian Journal of Information Science, 5, 133-
143.
Byrne, M.D, John, B.E., Wehrle, N.S., and Crow, D.C. (1999). The tangled
web we wove: A taskonomy of www use. Human Factors in Computing
Systems: Proceedings of CHI 99: 544-551. Reading, MA: Addison
Wesley.
Choo, C.W. and Turnbell, D. (2000). Information seeking on the web: An
integrated model of browsing and searching. First Monday, 5(2).
http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_2/choo/index.html
Ellis, D. (1989). A behavioural model for information retrieval system
design. Journal of Information Science, 15 (4/5): 237-247.

Dervin, B. and Nilan, M. (1986). Information needs and uses. Annual
Review of Information Science and Technology, 21: 3-33.
Koman, R. (1998). Helping users find their way by making your site
"smelly". WebReview.com
http://www.webreview.com/pub/98/05/15/feature/index.html
Pirolli, P. and Card, S. (1995). Information foraging in information
access environments. Human Factors in Computing Systems:
Proceedings of CHI 95.
http://www.acm.org/turing/sigs/sigchi/chi95/Electronic/documnts/pape
rs/ppp_bdy.htm
Taylor, R.S. (1986). Value-Added Processes in Information Systems.

So what does this work tell us about navigation?
People develop and use navigation tools and wayfinding
systems
They help us determine where we came from, where we
are going and where we are going
Navigation on a web site should support the sites
organizational structure
The tools we build in should support users information
seeking behaviors
Some are embedded
These provide context and flexibility in the site
Some are supplemental
These are external to the content of the site

One important purpose is to provide context
This is important because of the nature of linking
People often enter a site without coming through the
home page
The goal is to allow people to figure out where they are at
all times
Also to give them a sense of the site
If they enter at random, can they figure out where they
are in relation to the rest of the site?
Will they know how to get to the home page?
Do they know where the next pages will lead?
What can serve as metaphorical landmarks?

There are three levels of embedded systems
Global
Present on every page on the site
Allows access to key areas on the site
Local
Provides access to smaller sections of the site
These areas may be self-contained (subsites)
More common in large sites since these areas may be
controlled by different groups
Each section may have a different form of navigation
The navigation elements may be embedded in the
global system

Contextual
These navigation systems may be unique to a page or
set of pages
Can be used to support associative learning and
directed exploration
Often represented with inline links
Should be done with care since people tend to scan
large blocks of text and may miss them
When implementing embedded navigation systems the
challenge is to minimize the real estate taken up by them
Can use textual or iconic links
Very important to test these tools

Supplemental navigation systems
External to the basic site hierarchy
Can be critical to usability
Sitemaps
Provides an overview of the entire sites structure
Should represent the site hierarchy
Site index
Typically a flat listing of major sections on the site
Will be alphabetical
Supports known item searching
Put some thought into the level of granularity

Site index
If the site is very large, it could use a controlled
vocabulary
See also references
Term rotation (permutation)
site map - map, site
Examining logs can be useful to find terms that are
typically used
Guides
Provides a restricted way to learn about the sites
structure
Tour or tutorial
Can focus on a specific topic or task
Guides
Can be used to preview restricted areas
Typically uses linear navigation mixed with graphics
Advanced navigation
Personalization
Dynamically generated pages based on user profiling
Different for different types of users
Customization
User has control over presentation, navigation, and
content
S/he has to be willing to put in the time to select and
organize the options

Types of schemes
Types of structures
II. Labeling
Types of labels
III. Navigation
The research
Navigation schemes
Home page usability

Developing the information architecture
Content inventory
List of functions and tasks
Chunking, labeling and relationships
Setting up the hierarchy
Evaluation of metaphor
Navigation scheme
Design document

Developing structure, content, and functionality
Two important questions:
What is the range of content that the key stakeholders
want to see on the site?
Categories of content include
Static
Dynamic
Functional
Transactional
Have key informants generate a similar list

What are the key functions that should be on the site?
Categories include
Logon page
Sign-up or registration pages
Purchasing pages
Interaction pages
Help pages
Have key informants develop similar lists
Combine the lists and ask for feedback
These lists form the basis for the organization and
interactivity of the site (and information architecture)

Seek out informed advice
Ask the technology and production people to assess
the feasibility of these functions
Ask marketing, communications or others to assess
the feasibility of moving the content to the web
Does the company have the technology and the skills
to meet these requirements?
Does it have the time and money to buy or pay to build
these functions?
After these discussions, some functions and content
may be dropped to meet budgets and deadlines
Others may become overshadowed by more important
ones and drop out

The next stage is organization
The content areas have to be named (labeled) and
placed in relation to each other
This can be done with paper prototyping
Develop a schematic for the site
1. Home
2.1 Who we are
2.1.1 Job opportunities
2.1.2 How to contact us
2.2 What we do
2.2.1 What we sell

Use this as a basis for the first attempt at structure
This can get very detailed depending on the size of
the site
Begin with the major content areas and sketch out the
relationships among them
Home
Who we are What we do
Job opportunities What we sell
How to contact us

Three types of metaphors are useful to site design:
Organizational metaphors
These rely on the existing structure of a group, system,
or organization
Use with caution
Functional metaphors
Functional metaphors relate tasks you can do on the site
with tasks you can do in another environment
the list of functionalities will be useful here
Visual metaphors
Visual metaphors are based on common graphic
elements familiar to most people in our culture

Putting the structure, general content categories and
metaphors together provides a high-level view of the site
Thinking about the user experience helps you develop
the navigation scheme for the site
The major content categories can be used for the global
navigation scheme
Then local schemes can be created for subsections of
the site
Testing these schemes is important

There is an interesting range of navigation options:
Text links (including breadcrumbs, parent-child)
Icons (may or may not have labels)
Buttons (need labels)
Site map
Color channels
Title bars (bookmarks
Status bar (JavaScript messages or filenames)
File/directory naming structure

Visual design
This activity faces outward
Visual design is for the people using the site
One purpose is to provide a sense of place
Who owns the site and what do they do?
Where are they on the site?
Where they have been?
How can they get to where they want to be?
Good site structure and an effective visual design
enables people to construct a mental map of the site
The challenge is to map the site structure onto the visual
design with a wireframe

One way to begin is with the layout grid
Determine the set of generic pages to be used in the
major sections
The content data is useful here
Develop a set of generic page elements using content
and navigation data
What should be on every page
This should be done globally and locally
Draw the set of generic template pages with major
elements in place
Elements to consider: branding, advertising and
sponsorship info, company info, contact info,
navigation, page titles, header graphics, footers, and
copyrights and privacy statements

A layout grid
Schiple, J. (2000). Information Architecture Tutorial. WebMonkey.

http://hotwired.lycos.com/webmonkey/98/28/index4a_page2.html?tw=de
sign
The next step is to mock up pages
This is the job of the graphic designer
The general structure and layout grids set parameters
within which designers can develop the pages
This is also a point of tension
The result is the initial prototype
This can be developed as a series of graphic files or
HTML pages
Eventually the prototype will be mounted on a
development server and tested

The design document
1. Goals 4. Site Structure

2. User Experience 4.1 Site Structure Listing (or
Summary)
2.1 Audience Definition
4.2 Architectural Blueprints
2.2 Scenarios
4.3 Global and Local
2.3 Competitive Analysis
Navigation Systems
Summary
5. Visual Design
Appendix A: Competitive Analysis
5.1 Layout Grids
3. Site Content
5.2 Design Sketches
3.1 Content Grouping and
Labeling 5.3 Page Mock-ups
3.2 Functional Requirements 5.4 Web-based Prototype
Appendix B: Content Inventory 6. Test results
7. Implementation, maintenance,
change
Home page usability
A homepage is an important feature of an working site
The homepage is the most valuable real estate in the
world
Nielsen and Tahir (2001). Homepage Usability. Preface.
It is the digital face of the company
This is the point of first impression
It receives the most visits although people typically do
not spend a lot of time there
It represents a very large investment
The average commercial web site costs ~$1,400,000.37

What does a home page do?
It provides an overview of the companys web space
It provides a high level view of the sites information
architecture
It lays out the top level navigation scheme
The page has marketing functions as well
This is where branding begins
The groundwork for trust-formation occurs here
The basic messages of the organization are initially
presented here

Design goals
How can you communicate the purpose of your site?
Make sure that your logo is visible and in a noticeable
location
Use a slogan that concisely explains what you do
Use it to differentiate yourself
Make sure that the home page is distinct in its design
This minimizes user confusion
Decide what the most important tasks are for your
patrons and display appropriate links prominently
Be sure to include contact information

Use the page to inform the visitor about your company
Provide links to information about the company
This could include
About us Employment Investor relations
Groups these links together
Include a link to a page of press releases
This is important for journalists
Have a link to a page describing your privacy policy
Tell people what type of information you collect and
what its used for
Only include information relevant to external audiences
Use the intranet for the rest

Pay attention to the content of this page - writing matters
Use your customers language to describe the main
sections and categories
Find out what terms they use to describe your business
processes
Avoid the jargon of your particular specialty
Try to minimize redundant content
Use consistent style rules throughout the site
Avoid the imperative except where it is necessary
Use examples to clarify content
Provide links to further explanations (narrowing)
Provide links to more general information (expanding)

IA issues
Develop a consistent link strategy
Clearly distinguish links from each other
Avoid generic descriptors like Click here and More
Use link colors that can be differentiated
If a link does something unusual, explain it
A primary purpose of this page is navigation
Group the navigation options and make them visible
Avoid redundant choices
Clearly label links
Use icons carefully
Link to the shopping cart from the homepage

Use a consistent search strategy
Provide an input box on the homepage
Use a Go button to activate the search
Search the entire site
Include a link to an advanced search option
Make the box big and wide enough to allow editing (30
characters)
Provide task-oriented shortcuts
Link to major tasks and functions that visitors want
Avoid overkill with options

Be judicious in your use of graphics and animation
Use graphics for content and not ornamentation
Label the image if it differs from the text it supports
Edit or crop images to fit the page
Be very careful about overlaying text on images
Be even more careful using animation
Dont animate critical elements (like the logo)
Remember that it draws attention away from critical
content
Use high contrast text and background
Have the most critical elements above the fold
Use liquid layout

Other concerns:
Size matters
Because of variability in displays, design for a 700
pixel width
Design for deep linking
If users come in at lower levels, what branding content
should they see?
Design for consistency
What is the metaphor you will carry throughout your
site?
Navigation: Where am I? Where have I been? Where
am I going?

Navigation has a purpose
To place the users location and possible movements
relative to the sites information architecture
Try to show a pages position in the hierarchy
(breadcrumbs)
Provide search options
Site structure
It should be sensible to users and reflect the tasks they
have to accomplish on your site
Dont simply mirror the structure of the organization
Linear structure does not take advantage of the web
Subsites can be appropriate for large sites

Organizing information
Classify, label, and catalog content for easy navigation
Deal with ambiguity and heterogeneity
Clear language is essential, especially for major section
headings
Present information with varying degrees of granularity
(resolution)
Different types of information may be side by side (links
to articles and journals)
Links may lead to single pages or groups of pages
It may also be available in varying formats

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Kalbach, J. 92001). Designing for Information Foragers: A Behavioral

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Who we are What we do

Job opportunities What we sell

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Schiple, J. (2000). Information Architecture Tutorial. WebMonkey.

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1. Goals 4. Site Structure

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