&
PRINCIPLE OF ENERGY METABOLISM
Carbohydrate metabolism
Glucose, rbc metabolism, glycogen, blood
glucose, diabetes
Lipid metabolism
Plasma lipoproteins CM, VLDL, LDL, HDL
Protein metabolism
Gluconeogenesis
Calories
Fat contains 9 calories per gram
Protein contains 4 calories/gram
Glucose
Glycogen Glycolysis Fatty acids
Glycogenolysis
G6P b-Oxidation
Ca2+
PKa Ca2+
No O2 PDH
Lactate Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA
Electron
Krebs
BCAA Transport
cycle
Ile, Val Ca2+ Chain
ISDH, aKGDH
Glucose
How does the body metabolise glucose?
How can we obtain energy from glucose?
How is energy derived from glucose?
Glucose
2 types of glycolysis:
Aerobic g. and anaerobic g.
In aerobic g.:
Oxygen status: sufficient oxygen supply
Glycogen
How is glycogen metabolised by the body?
How can we obtain energy from glycogen?
How is energy derived from glycogen?
Glycogen
Glycogen is involved in 2 ways:
Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis)
Glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)
Note:
Blood glucose is determined under fasting condition
Plasma is used to determine glucose content
Quote values in mmol/L, or mg/dl
When we eat:
At high blood glucose level, insulin is secreted
When we sleep:
The liver maintains blood glucose (by hepatic glycogenolysis) to
within acceptable levels between 4.2-6.2 mmol/L =70-110 mg/dl
(fasting values)
Gluconeogenesis
What is gluconeogenesis?
Formation of glucose from non-glucose sources
such as C-skeletons of glucogenic amino acids
Figure 24.14
Protein Metabolism
Nucleic
GLYCOGEN Acids PROTEIN TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
Ribose-5-P g
c d f Urea i j
a e
h
Glucose-6-P Amino
Glucose Acids Free Fatty Acids
b
b a
k l
Lactate p
Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA
m
o
n
Ketone
Bodies ATP
Isomerization Reactions
Have Smaller Free
Energy Changes
Complete Oxidation of
Reduced Compounds is
Strongly Favorable
Thermodynamic Laws
The First Law of Thermodynamics.
A systems internal energy can change only by the
exchange of heat or work with the surroundings.
A Statement of Conservation of energy.
This means the environment of the cell gains 30.5 kJ of heat energy for each
mole of ATP hydrolyzed by water. Obviously, this is wasteful. To counter the
loss, ATP hydrolysis is coupled with the synthesis of a phosphorylated
compound. You saw this as a coupled reaction when ATP was needed to
produce glucose-6-PO4 or fructose 1,6-bisPO4 (click 1).
25 oC 25 oC
100 oC 25 oC
25 oC 25 oC
37 oC x 25 oC
Direct vs Indirect Energy Production
COO COO
Calculating energy yield in glycolysis
Calculating energy yield helps you see the energy phase of metabolism
in real numbers. Take for example the energy yield when glyceraldehyde-3-PO4
is oxidized to pyruvate. How much energy is conserved in this reaction? To
determine that number we need to know the pathway. We also need to know if
anaerobic or aerobic conditions prevail. First the pathway. There are 5 enzyme-
catalyzed reactions to consider (click 1).
glyceraldehyde-3-PO4 + PO4 + NAD+ 1,3-bisPO4 glycerate + NADH + H+
1,3-bisPO4 glycerate + ADP 3-phosphoglycerate + ATP
3-phosphglycerate 2-phosphoglycerate
2-phosphoglycerate PEP + H2O
PEP + ADP pyruvate + ATP + H2O
Removing the common terms on both sides yields a final equation (click 1).
We see that the phosphate on glyceraldehyde-3-PO4 and the inorganic PO4
both contribute to formation of ATP. Thus, 2 ATPs are formed by the 5
reactions. Under anaerobic conditions two represents the final yield. But, if
the reaction was carried out with oxygen and involved the mitochondria,
energy to the equivalent of 5 ATPs would result. Click 1 to see why.
Energy yield in the mitochondria
The mitochondria is the heart of aerobic metabolism. Electrons in
NADH and FADH2 are channeled into the electron transport system, which is
driven by O2. A large part of energy of oxidation of the electron transport
components is preserved in ATP. Each NADH generates the equivalent of 3
ATPs and each FADH2, 2 ATPs for each pair of electrons transferred to oxygen
(click 1).
O2
NADH from the cytosol yields its electrons indirectly via a shuttle. NADH
generated by the 3 NAD-linked dehydrogenases in the Krebs cycle provide
most of the energy. For example, each citrate molecule oxidized to CO2 and
H2O generates the equivalent of 36 ATPs. Click 1 to see how this value was
obtained.
Energy yield in the Krebs cycle
A cycle implies the last intermediate returns to the front. Each turn of the
Krebs cycle results in the loss of 2 carbons as CO2 and generates 3NADH, one
FADH2 and one GTP (click 1). A 2-carbon compound, such as the acetate group
on acetyl-CoA, therefore, yields 12 ATPs of energy.
Now, suppose instead of acetyl-
Acetyl-CoA
CoA we want to determine the ATP yield
when oxaloacetate (OAA) is oxidized (click
citrate 1). First write the equation for the oxidation
oxaloacetate isocitrate (click 1). OAA yields 4 moles of CO2 for each
CO2 mole oxidized. Thus, 2 turns of the cycle are
NADH needed to oxidize all of the carbons in OAA to
NADH
malate a-ketoglutarate CO2. Two turns is equivalent to 24 ATPs.
CO2
NADH Performing the same analysis for
fumarate
succinyl-CoA citrate shows 6CO2 liberated, or 3 turns of the
FADH2 cycle (click 1). Thus, citrate yield 36 ATPs, or
GTP
one third more energy than OAA. Finally lets
succinate
consider the oxidation of malate (click 1).
Malate has 4 carbons, which means the
C4H4O5 + 31/2 O2 4CO2 + 2H2O oxidation will generate 4CO2. But, we also
need to oxidize malate to OAA, which
C6H8O7 + 41/2O2 6CO2 + 4H2O
generates one NADH. Thus 3 more ATPs
C4H6O5 + 5 O2 4CO2 + 3H2O than OAA, i.e., 24 + 3= 27 ATPs. Click 1 to
test and expand your understanding.
Thermodynamics and Metabolism
A. Free-Energy Change
G = Go + RT ln Q
Where Q = [C][D] / [A][B]
The Free Energy of ATP
N
N
ester linkage
O O O N N
adenine
-O P O P O P O CH2
O
O- O- O- H H
ribose
H H
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) OH OH
By oxidative
By substrate- phosphorylation
Pathway level
phosphorylation From From
NADH FADH
Glycolysis 2 (2X3)=6 0
Intermediate 0 (2X3)=6
step
Krebs cycle 2 (6X3)=18 (2X2)=4
Total 4 30 4
Gain
Electrons
REDUCTION
Oxidation-Reduction
+4
+3
You Try It
Oxidized
+2
Fe2+ Fe 3+
+1
0
-1
OXIDIZED!
Cu 2+ Cu (s)
Reduced
-2 Hint: Cu (s) is Cu 0
-3 REDUCED!
-4
Oxidation-Reduction
Example: if we put a piece of zinc metal in a
beaker containing a solution of copper(II)
sulfate
some of the zinc metal dissolves
some of the copper ions deposit on the zinc metal
the blue color of Cu2+ ions gradually disappears
In this oxidation-reduction reaction
zinc metal loses electrons to copper ions
2+ -
Zn(s) Zn (aq) + 2 e Zn is oxidized
2+
Zn(s) + Cu2 + (aq) Zn ( aq) + Cu( s)
loses electrons ; gains electrons ;
is oxidized is red uced
gives electrons tak es electrons
to Cu 2+ ; is th e from Zn; is th e
red ucing agent oxidizin g agent
Oxidation-Reduction
using these alternative definitions for the
combustion of methane
electrons are
transferred from
carbon to oxygen
Reduced
organic
compounds
serve as fuels
from which
electrons can
be stripped off
during
oxidation
Reversible Oxidation of a Secondary
Alcohol to a Ketone
Many biochemical oxidation-reduction reactions
involve transfer of two electrons
In order to keep charges in balance, proton transfer
often accompanies electron transfer
In many dehydrogenases, the reaction proceeds by a
stepwise transfers of proton ( H+ ) and hydride ( :H- )
NAD and NADP are Common
Redox Cofactors
These are commonly called pyridine nucleotides
They can dissociate from the enzyme after the reaction
In a typical biological oxidation reaction, hydride from an
alcohol is transferred to NAD+ giving NADH
Heat of Reaction
In almost all chemical reactions, heat is either
given off or absorbed
example: the combustion (oxidation) of carbon
liberates 94.0 kcal per mole of carbon oxidized
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 94.0 kcal
How about:
2 NH3 + 22.0 kcal N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g)
Heat enters with reactant (on the reactant side)
Its Endothermic
What are Functions of NAD, NADP, FAD?
Electron carriers
You should be able to complete a table to calculate energy yields from glucose or fatty acids (of any given length)
-- assuming 2.5 ATP per NADH (1.5 per glycolytic NADH) and 1.5 ATP per FADH
From glucose From a 12 carbon fatty acid
Glycolysis ATP yield B-oxidation ATP yield
____ NADH x ____ ATP _______ ____ FADH x ____ ATP x 6 acCoA _______
____ NADH x ____ ATP x 6 acCoA _______
____ ATP _______ Krebs cycle
Transition Rx ____ NADH x ____ ATP x 6 acCoA _______
____ NADH x ____ ATP x 2 pyr _______ ____ FADH x ____ ATP x 6 acCoA _______
Krebs cycle ____ GTP x ____ ATP x 6 acCoA _______
____ NADH x ____ ATP x 2 pyr _______ Total 84
____ FADH x ____ ATP x 2 pyr _______
____ GTP x ____ ATP x 2 pyr _______
Total 30
What are the biosynthetic roles
Of these pathways?
Table . Summary of redox complexes of the electron transport chain
Cytochrome B, Cytochrome
C, Fe-S proteins, etc. ATP
Electron Transport Chain Synthase
NADH +
Group transfer reactions are favorable when the free energy of products
is much lower than the free energy of reactants. In biochemical
phosphoryl transfer reactions, the good phosphate donors are
destabilized by electrostatic repulsion, and the reaction products are
often stabilized by resonance.
Unfavorable reactions can be made possible by chemically coupling a
highly favorable reaction to the unfavorable reaction. For example, ATP
can be synthesized in the cell using energy in phosphoenolpyruvate.
Oxidation-reduction reaction commonly involve transfer of electrons from
reduced organic compounds to specialized redox cofactors. The
reduced cofactors can be used in the biosynthesis, or may serve as a
source of energy for ATP synthesis.
Review Questions
3. Is pyruvate acetyl-CoA the only way to enter carbons into the Krebs cycle?
Ans: No. Any compound that can be converted into a Krebs cycle intermediate will
contribute carbons to the Krebs cycle. This applies to aspartate and glutamate,
which form OAA and a-ketoglutarate, respectively.
5. How many ATPs are generated when succinyl-CoA is oxidized in the cycle?
Ans: 30. One for GTP, two for FADH2 and 3 for NADH must be added to the 24 for 2
turns of the cycle.
Kebutuhan energi Manusia
Aktifitas Kkal/mnt
Duduk sambil istirahat 0.7 2.0
Berjalan 2.0 6.0
Lari cepat 15 atau lebih
Lari jarak jauh/Maraton 10 atau lebih
Balap sepeda 10 atau lebih
Total Energy Requirement
(Adults)(TERA)
Energy Allowance Based on Activity Level
TERA = IBW (k) x Physical Activity
Activity level:
Bed rest (hospital patients) 27.5
Meningkat:
Pertumbuhan
Badan Kurus & Tinggi
Laki-laki > Perempuan
Demam , stress
Kehamilan /menyusui.
Meningkat pada thyroxin (
Thyrotoxocosis
Thermal Effect of Food
TEF = Thermal effect of food
Meningkat energi yang digunakan
setelah makan..
5-10% of BMR
Digunakan untuk mencerna,
pencernaan dan asimilasi dari
Makanan Yang dimakan
Contoh: 5% x 1320 = 60 Cal
Total Energy(TE)
TE = BMR +TEF + Activities
Aktifitas: Apa saja kegiatan rutin
Sedentary 25-35% BMR
Light 35-50%
Moderate 50-70%
Heavy >70%
http://www.americaonthemove.org/
USATODAY.com - Study: Obesity rises faster
in poor teens