WATERFLOOD DESIGN

PROCESS
KELOMPOK :
ACHMAD ROXZY (121140045)
MAHARANI INAS M (121140043)
ALFANO PRAWIRA HUTOMO (121140066)
Guidelines for Pattern Selection

Peripheral floods
Suitable for dipping, relatively homogeneous reservoirs
Require adequate lateral continuity and high transmissibility
Require careful control of withdrawal from up-structure wells and shutting-in of high water cut wells

Uniform flood patterns

If well drilling cost is low, utilize smaller uniform patterns with equal distances between injectors and
producers such as four, five and seven spot
Choice between normal and inverted patterns should be based on observed well productivity and
injectivity
Selected pattern should provide optimum injection and production capacity
Selected pattern type, pattern size and injection rate should be consistent with available fluid lifting,
rock fracturing pressure and well injectivity
Guidelines for Pattern Selection

Example
An oil reservoir is considered for waterflooding with a desirable flood life of 10 years and total water
injection of 2.5 pore volumes.
Given data: Porosity 28%
Net reservoir thickness 64 ft
Reservoir depth 2200 ft
Water injectivity 1.65 Bbl/day/psi
Maximum lifting capacilty 700 BFPD
Average reservoir pressure 900 psia
Expected operating days per year 350
Fracturing pressure gradient 0.85 psi/ft
Water formation volume factor 1.02 RB/STB
Using a maximum bottomhole injection pressure of 90% of fracturing pressure, and assuming zero
voidage rate, determine the appropriate flood pattern for the proposed waterflood.
Guidelines for Pattern Selection

Example, continued
Assume that pattern size = A acre
Pore volume per pattern = 7758xAx64x0.28 = 139A MBbl
Total volume of water injection = 2.5x139A = 348A MBbl
Desired Injection rate = 348Ax1000 / (10x350) = 99.4A BWPD/pattern
Fracturing pressure = 0.85x2200 = 1870 psia
Maximum injection rate = 1.65x(1870x0.9 900) = 1292 BWPD
Hence; Pattern size A = 1292 / 99.4 = 13 acre
Required lifting per pattern = 1292x1.02 = 1318 BFPD
Number of producing wells required per pattern = 1318 / 700 = 1.9
Therefore;
An inverted seven spot (with size of 13 acre) is recommended since this
type of pattern provides a producer-to-injector ratio of 2.
Guidelines for Pattern Selection

Reservoir simulation models can help in selecting the flood pattern type and size to
achieve maximum oil recovery with minimum injected water.
Selected flood pattern should utilize as many as possible of the existing producing wells.
Some existing producing wells can be converted to injectors. It should be remembered
that poor producers also make poor injectors. Hence; before deciding on converting a
poor producing well to an injector, some analysis is required to determine the reasons for
poor productivity.
If anisotropy or natural fractures exist, pattern alignment and utilization of elongated
patterns should be considered in order to avoid premature water breakthrough.
Reservoir simulation models can help in selecting optimum pattern variations.
In flood patterns within dipping reservoirs, injectors should be located off center closer
to the up-dip side to delay the breakthrough time in down-dip producing wells.
Guidelines for Pattern Selection

The shape and size of flood patterns located near fault planes or flow barriers
should be properly adjusted to in order avoid lack of communication between injectors
and producers in the same pattern
Sealed
Fault
Reservoir Fill-up

A fill-up period is required if free gas exists in the reservoir before waterflood
Oil production response in usually starts after fill-up period
During fill-up period, a significant amount of free gas goes back into solution
Waterflood design should allow for the fill-up period and its effect on production
performance and injectivity
Reservoir simulation models automatically account for fill-up effects
Reservoir engineering calculations can also be made using conceptual models to
provide approximate values for fill-up effects
Reservoir Fill-up

Fill-up volume
If production occurs during fill-up:
Wif = (Vp Sgi / Bw) + (Npf Bo / Bw) + Wpf
If no production occurs during fill-up: Production
Wif = Vp Sgi / Bw Npf and Wpf
Injection
Wif Pore vol Vp
Free gas sat Sgi
Reservoir Fill-up

Fill-up time
tif = Wif / qinj
= [(Vp Sgi / Bw) + qo tif {(Bo / Bw) + WOR}] / qinj
Solving for tif requires an iterative procedure if qo and WOR are functions of time

Production rate qo
Water-oil ratio
Injection rate WOR
qinj Pore vol Vp
Free gas sat Sgi
Reservoir Fill-up

Volumetric sweep efficiency at fill-up: Swept region

Injected water
Pore vol Vp
Wif
Water sat Swbt
Init wat sat Swi
At the end of fill-up period:
Evf = Wif Bw / Vp (Swbt - Swi)
Reservoir Fill-up

Example
Calculate the volume of injected water required for fill-up, length of the fill-up period and volumetric
sweep efficiency for a waterflood pattern with the following characteristics:
Pattern size 20 acre
Gross reservoir thickness 72 ft
Net-to-gross ratio 0.86
Porosity 26%
Initial free gas saturation 15%
Initial water saturation 31%
Water saturation at breakthrough 63%
Oil production rate 158 BOPD
Water-oil ratio 0.7
Water injection rate 2500 BWPD
Oil formation volume factor 1.22 RB/STB
Water formation volume factor 1.03 RB/surface Bbl
Reservoir Fill-up

Example, continued
Pore volume Vp = 7758x20x72x0.86x0.26 = 2498 MBbl
First iteration: Wif = 2498x0.15 / 1.03 = 364 MBbl
tif = 364000 / 2500 = 145.6 days
Second iteration:
Wif = (2498x0.15 / 1.03) + (158x145.6 / 1000)[(1.22 / 1.03) + 0.7] = 407.1 MBbl
tif = 407100 / 2500 = 162.8 days
Third iteration:
Wif = (2498x0.15 / 1.03) + (158x162.8 / 1000)[(1.22 / 1.03) + 0.7] = 412.3 MBbl
tif = 412300 / 2500 = 164.9 days
Fourth iteration:
Wif = (2498x0.15 / 1.03) + (158x164.9 / 1000)[(1.22 / 1.03) + 0.7] = 412.9 MBbl
tif = 412900 / 2500 = 165.2 days
Hence; Fill-up volume = 413 MBbl and Fill-up period = 165 days
Volumetric sweep efficiency at fill-up = 413x1.03 / [2498(0.63 0.31)] = 53.2%
Water Injectivity

Water injection rates play an important role in project design

and economics
Injection rates directly impact surface facilities and flood life
Water injection rate into a given well depends on:
-- Fluid viscosity and density
-- Fluid saturation distribution
-- Water quality
-- Reservoir depth
-- Injection tubing size and roughness
-- Bottomhole pressure in injection wells Pinj
-- Bottomhole flowing pressure in producing wells Pw
-- Reservoir permeability
-- Flood pattern shape and size
-- Relative permeability characteristics
Water Injectivity

Water injectivity Jw is defined as:

Jw = qinj / P

where P = Pinj Pw

Jw can be estimated from Darcys Law and can be measured

from well tests
Procedure to estimate Jw depends on the flood stage:
-- From start till interference
-- From end of interference till fill-up
-- From end of fill-up till breakthrough
-- From breakthrough till abandonment
Water Injectivity

Injectivity calculations:
First stage;
Based on radial flow around injection wells
Second stage;
Use average between end of first and beginning of third stages
Third and fourth stages;
Based on pattern shape, mobility ratio and areal sweep efficiency
Note:
First and second stages apply only for reservoirs with initial
free gas saturation Sgi
Water Injectivity

First Stage: From Start till Well Interference

Based on analogy between fluid flow and electrical flow for series arrangement:
0.00708 k h
Jw
r r Oil bank
Bw [ w ln( wb ) o ln( ob ) 0.5( w o ) S ]
where: kkrw= absolute
rw kropermeability,
rwb krw kro
md
krw = water relative permeability at Swbt rob
kro = oil relative permeability at Swi rw
h = net reservoir thickness, ft
w = water viscosity, cp rwb
o = oil viscosity, cp
Bw = water formation volume factor
S = skin factor

Water bank
 Water Injectivity

First Stage: From Start till Well Interference

First stage applies as long as: rob < D /2
When oil banks from adjacent injectors meet: robmax = D / 2
and the second stage starts
1.787Winj
rob
h S gi rob rob
rw rw

rwb rwb

S gi
rwb rob
S wbt S wi

D=2r
Water Injectivity

First Stage: Example

Flood pattern 20-acre five-spot
Net reservoir thickness 54 ft
Porosity 24%
Permeability 174 md
Initial water saturation Swi 28%
Oil relative permeability at Swi 0.86
Average water saturation at breakthrough Swbt 62%
Water relative permeability at Swbt 0.15
Initial gas saturation 12%
Oil viscosity 1.3 cp
Water viscosity 0.5 cp
Water formation volume factor 1.02 RB/surf Bbl
Wellbore radius 0.4 ft
Bottomhole pressure in producer 600 psia
Bottomhole pressure in injector 1300 psia
Skin factor +0.9
Estimate: Time required to inject 30 MBbl of water per pattern at flood start
Injected volume and injection rate at start of well interference
Water Injectivity

First Stage: Example, continued

Oil bank outer radius rob = [1.787x30000 / (54x0.24x0.12)]0.5 = 186 ft
Water bank outer radius rwb = 186x[0.12 / (0.62 0.28)]0.5 = 111 ft
P = 1300 600 = 700 psi
0.00708 x174 x54 x700
Injection rate = 1.02[
0.5 111
ln( )
1.3
ln(
186
) 0.5(
0.5

1.3
) x0.9]
= 2103 BWPD
0.15 0.4 0.86 111 0.15 0.86

Distance between adjacent injection wells D = (20x43560)0.5 = 933 ft

Maximum value of rob: robmax = 933 / 2 = 466.5 ft
Corresponding value of rwb = 466.5x[0.12 / (0.62 0.28) ]0.5 = 277 ft

Hence; at start of well interference:

Volume of injected water = 54x0.24x0.12x(466.5)2 / 1.787 = 189400 Bbl
0.00708 x174 x54 x700
Injection rate = 0.5 277 1.3 466.5 0.5 1.3 = 1843 BWPD
1.02[ ln( ) ln( ) 0.5( ) x0.9]
0.15 0.4 0.86 277 0.15 0.86
Water Injectivity

Third and Fourth Stages: After Fill-up

M = 1 and Sgi = 0 0.003541krw k h
Jw
Five spot pattern: Bw w [ln( d / rw ) 0.619 S ]
d = distance between injector and producer
0.003541krw k h
Line drive with (d/a) 1: Jw
d = distance between rows Bw w [ln( a / rw ) 1.571(d / a ) 1.838 S ]
a = distance between producers

0.00472 krw k h
Seven spot pattern:
Jw
Bw w [ln( d / rw ) 0.569 S ]
d = distance between wells
Water Injectivity

Third and Fourth Stages: After Fill-up

M = 1 and Sgi = 0
Nine spot pattern: d = half the length of pattern side
R = ratio of producing rate of corner to side wells
P is based on bottomhole flowing pressure of corner well
0.003541k rw k h
Jw
1 R
Bw w [ {ln( d / rw ) 0.272 } S ]
2 R
and if P is based on bottomhole flowing pressure of side well
0.00708 k rw k h
Jw
3 R 0.693
Bw w [ {ln( d / rw ) 0.272 } S]
2 R 2 R
Water Injectivity

Third and Fourth Stages: After Fill-up

For unit mobility ratio M = 1; hence; kro / o = krw / w

Injectivity for this condition is designated as base (initial) injectivity Jw0
For example, for Five spot pattern:

0.003541 k ro k h
J w0
Bw o [ln( d / rw ) 0.619 S ]
For M = 1: As Ea increases, Jw remains equal to Jw0
For M < 1: As Ea increases, Jw declines
For M > 1: As Ea increases, Jw increases
Water Injectivity

10

Third and Fourth Stages: After Fill-up

Conductance Ratio
Conductance ratio:
= Jw / Jw0 = qinjP0 / qinj0P
1

is a function of mobility ratio M

and areal sweep efficiency Ea

can be used to estimate changes

in injectivity with time 0.1
0.1 1 10
Mobility Ratio
Water Injectivity

Third and Fourth Stages: Example

Estimate the water injection rate initially and after cumulative injection reaches 350 MBbls for a waterflood that
has the following characteristics:
Flood pattern 20-acre five-spot
Net reservoir thickness 54 ft
Porosity 24%
Permeability 174 md
Initial water saturation Swi 28%
Oil relative permeability at Swi 0.86
Average water saturation at breakthrough Swbt 62%
Water relative permeability at Swbt 0.15
Vertical sweep efficiency at breakthrough 80%
Initial gas saturation 0
Oil viscosity 1.3 cp
Water viscosity 0.5 cp
Water formation volume factor 1.02 RB/surf Bbl
Wellbore radius 0.4 ft
Bottomhole pressure in producer 600 psia
Bottomhole pressure in injector 1300 psia
Skin factor +0.9
Water Injectivity

Third and Fourth Stages: Example, continued

Distance between injector and producer:
d = (20x43560 / 2)0.5 = 660 ft
Base injectivity:
Jw0 = 0.003541x0.86x174x54 / [1.02x1.3x(ln(660 / 0.4) 0.619 + 0.9)]
= 2.81 Bbl/day/psi
Initial injection rate = 2.81x(1300 600) = 1967 BWPD
Mobility ratio M = (0.15x1.3) / (0.86x0.5) = 0.45
Pore volume per pattern = 7758x20x54x0.24 = 2011 MBbl
After injection of 350 MBbl:
Volumetric sweep efficiency Ev = 350 / [2011(0.62 0.28)] = 0.512
Areal sweep efficiency Ea = 0.512 / 0.8 = 0.64
From the correlation, Conductance ratio = 0.65
Hence; Water injection rate = 0.65x1967 = 1278 BWPD
Injection Allocation

Allocation of injected water is required in order to assure a uniform oil displacement and optimum oil recovery

This is a key step in waterflood optimization and requires cooperative effort from geologists and reservoir engineers

Injection allocation consists of two parts:

Balancing the injection rate and cumulative injection between various flood patterns according to their pore volume

Achieving a uniform injection profile covering all reservoir flow units within the waterflood interval

Continued monitoring is required to assure that allocated injection rates and injection profiles are implemented
Balanced injection also:
Prevents fluid migration across pattern boundaries
Results in uniform fluid lifting requirements in producing wells
Minimizes premature water breakthrough
Injection Allocation

Injection rates for various patterns are calculated as follows:

Injection rate for pattern n qinjn = qinjt Vpn / Vpt
Where: qinjn = injection rate for pattern n
qinjt = total injection rate for the waterflood
Vpn = net pore volume for pattern n
Vpt = total net pore volume for waterflood area
Example
Total injection rate = 30000 BWPD
Total pore volume = 54750 MBbl
Pattern 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Pore volume 5246 4246 6689 6027 7635 7988 3899 5866 7155
Injection rate 2875 2327 3665 3302 4183 4377 2137 3214 3920
Injection Allocation

Actual injected volumes can deviate from design values due to:
Unknown reservoir heterogeneity
Presence of natural fractures and thief zones
Formation damage in injection wells
Non-uniform initial fluid saturation distribution in the reservoir
Non-uniform reservoir pressure distribution
Irregular pattern shapes

Monitoring and suitable remedial work should be conducted

Pattern voidage maps, Halls plots, production bubble maps and performance plots are
useful in this regard
Original injection allocation is usually revised based on actual performance and updated
reservoir studies
Injection Allocation

Maintaining uniform injection profile in all injection wells is a difficult task

Layer heterogeneity, shale breaks and thief zones affect injection profiles
Dual tubing strings with packers, twin injection wells and limited entry
techniques can help obtaining uniform injection profiles
Frequent spinner surveys, tracer surveys and use of observation wells are
helpful in determining actual injection profiles and water front movement
Cased-hole logging and 4-D seismic surveys also are done in some waterflood
projects to provide insight about fluid distribution and oil displacement
Note that these techniques are expensive, time consuming and require
experience and high technical capability
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Relationship to Reservoir Pressure

After reservoir fill-up, the next step is to raise average reservoir pressure to a
reasonable value
Selection of the pressure value is usually guided by fluid lifting conditions,
available water pumps, fracturing pressure and bubble point of reservoir oil
In general, a pressure value within 10 - 20% tolerance below the initial bubble
point is reasonable
Raising average reservoir pressure is generally combined with fil-up period
Water injection and fluid withdrawal rates should be controlled in order to
achieve a negative reservoir voidage rate for a calculated period of time
After the desired reservoir pressure is reaches, waterflood is operated at zero
voidage rate to maintain the pressure
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Voidage definition Production Injection

Cum: Np , Gp , Wp Cum: Winj
Cumulative voidage = Rate: qo , Rp , WOR
NpBo+(GpNpRs)Bg+WpBwWinj-We Rate: qinj

Voidage rate =
qo[Bo+(RpRs)Bg+WORBw]qinjBw-we
Influx
Cum: We
If voidage rate = 0 Rate: we
Reservoir pressure remains constant
If voidage rate > 0
Reservoir pressure will decline
Aquifer
If voidage rate < 0
Reservoir pressure will increase
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Injection-Withdrawal Ratio
Defined as Injection rate / fluid withdrawal rate
IWR = qinj Bw / [qo {Bo + (Rp Rs) Bg + WOR Bw}]
IWR > 1 during reservoir fill-up period
IWR = 1 during pressure maintenance period
Note that IWR does not take the water influx rate (we) into account due to the difficulty in its
estimation
If the water influx rate is known, the modified IWR is:
(IWR)m = (qinj Bw + we) / [qo {Bo + (Rp Rs) Bg + WOR Bw}]
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Changes in reservoir pressure

P = (V / Vp ct)
ct = cp + Sw cw + So co + Sg cg
Where: P = change in reservoir pressure, psi
V = cumulative reservoir voidage in RBbl
Vp = reservoir pore volume, Bbl
ct = total system compressibility, 1/psi
Sw, So and Sg are water, oil and gas saturations
cw, co and cg are water, oil and gas compressibilities, 1/psi
cp is pore volume compressibility, 1/psi
After reservoir fill-up:
ct = cp + Sw cw + So co
ct after fill-up <<< ct before fill-up
Hence; pressure response to injected water is much higher after fill-up
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Changes in reservoir pressure, Example

A waterflood has the characteristics given below. Reservoir fill-up is already achieved but average reservoir pressure is
still 635 psia. It is desired to raise the average reservoir pressure and maintain it at 970 psia in a period of 6 month.
Estimate the required water injection rate and the value of (IWR)m during the 6 month period and its value during
the pressure maintenance period.
Reservoir pore volume 187 MMBbl
Initial water saturation 38%
Initial oil saturation 62%
Water compressibility 3.2x10-6 psi-1
Oil compressibility 14x10-6 psi-1
Pore volume compressibility 6.8x10-6 psi-1
Water formation volume factor 1.03 RB/surface Bbl
Oil formation volume factor 1.25 RB/STB
Gas formation volume factor 2.2 RB/MCF
Solution gas-oil ratio 315 SCF/STB
Current oil rate 14860 BOPD
Current producing WOR 0.87
Current producing GOR 674 SCF/STB
Current water influx rate 13500 RB/day
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Changes in reservoir pressure

Example, continued
Assume the following data during pressure maintenance period:

Average oil rate 18500 BOPD

Average producing WOR 1.8
Average producing GOR 405 SCF/STB
Oil formation volume factor 1.28 RB/STB
Gas formation volume factor 1.5 RB/MCF
Solution gas-oil ratio 368 SCF/STB
Expected water influx rate 8600 RB/day
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Changes in reservoir pressure Example, continued

Total compressibility ct = [6.8 + 0.38x3.2 + 0.62x14]x10-6 = 16.7x10-6 psi-1
Required change in reservoir pressure = 970 635 = +335 psi
Required cumulative negative voidage = 187x106x335x16.7x10-6 = 1046 MRBbl
Required voidage rate = 1046000 / (6x30) = 5812 RB/day
Current withdrawal rate = 14860[1.25+(674-315)x0.0022+0.87x1.03] = 43627 RB/day
Hence; Required water injection rate = 43627 13500 + 5812 = 35939 BWPD
(IWR)m = (35939 + 13500) / 43627 = 1.13
Fluid withdrawal rate during pressure maintenance =
18500[1.28 + (405 - 368)x0.0015 + 1.8x1.03] = 59006 RB/day
Hence; Required water injection rate = 59006 8600 = 50406 BWPD
(IWR)m = (50406 + 8600) / 59006 = 1
Notes: -- Calculated injection rate during pressure maintenance period is quite sensitive
to the GOR and WOR values
-- It is recommended that reservoir engineers keep updating the material balance
to provide reliable water influx estimates
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Voidage Maps
Voidage analysis based on entire waterflood area is sometimes misleading
Some waterfloods could have adequate voidage control as a whole but the
distribution for various parts may not be acceptable, i.e. some patterns may
have positive voidage while other patterns have negative voidage
Reservoir engineers should calculate voidage for individual patterns and
prepare appropriate voidage maps
Voidage maps (based on cumulative or current rate) provide visual
illustration of injection and withdrawal distribution
Voidage maps provide guidelines for making suitable changes to achieve
optimum oil displacement and recovery
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Allocation factors

Calculating cumulative voidage or current voidage rate for a pattern requires the application
of well allocation factors:
Applied to injectors in normal Applied to producers in inverted patterns
Normal
Simple method: Pattern
Allocation factor = Angle of contribution / 360
Examples:
Corner well in nine-spot pattern = 90/360 = 0.25
Side well in nine-spot pattern = 180/360 = 0.5
All wells in four-spot pattern = 60/360 = 0.167
All wells in five-spot = 90/360 = 0.25
All wells in seven-spot = 120/360 = 0.333

Inverted
Pattern
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Allocation factors
More accurate allocation factors are based on angle of contribution i and weighting factors wi
related to reservoir characteristics
Appropriate weighting factors are usually estimated by engineers and geologists familiar with
the reservoir
Approximate weighting factors:
w1 w2 w3
A B C
wi = (kh)i for voidage rate D E
wi = (h)i for cumulative voidage w4 w5 w6
F G H

Fi = w i i / w i I w7 w8 w9

Allocation factors for peripheral wells are estimated based on their location and primary
production
Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Uses of voidage maps

Provide guidelines in making operational decisions to:

Increase or decrease water injection rates

Modify lifting capacities in certain wells
Drill additional infill wells
 Reservoir Voidage Analysis

Example of voidage maps

This voidage map indicates that:
1. Several patterns in the center of flood area need additional injection
2. Need to decrease injection rate, modify fluid lifting or add infill producing wells in
the eastern part of flood area

Positive
voidage
Negative
voidage
Zero voidage
fin