Antenna 2

Concept of retarded vector potential
How this fields are related to their sources?
First set up potentials in terms of the

charges or currents, and then to obtain the
electric or magnetic fields from these
potentials.
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Classification of Antennas
Wire-Type Antennas Aperture-Type Antennas
Dipoles Horn and open waveguide
Monopoles Reflector antennas
Biconical antennas Slot antennas
Loop antennas Microstrip antennas
Helical antennas
Linearly polarised antennas Circularly polarised
antennas
Element antennas Antenna array
Narrow-band Broad-band
Transmitting Receiving



Finding potential
Heuristic Start with

approach: Maxwells
equations and Third method is to
Simple way is to
from these attempt a direct
generalize the
derive solution of the
potentials
differential derived differential
already
equations equations for
developed for
the steady that the the potentials.
electric and potential must
satisfy.
magnetic fields,

Maxwells equation approach
J Source current density,

source charge density
NOTE:
Field is represented by either

curl , divergence

NOTE: From previous slide:
Only possible when

We Know
Similarly
Substitute We Know
Simplify

This equation coupled to each other

difficult to solve
do not have unique solution
Helmholtz theorem: Vector field is uniquely defined

if and only if its both divergence and curl are specified.

Maxwells equation approach
NOTE: From previous slide: If we restrict A
Laurentz gauge condition
Similarly
The solution
For non time varying potential

Magnetic vector potential is related to current only

Electric scalar potential related to the charges only

Heuristic approach
Electrostatic scalar potential V Vector potential A
Magnetic Field H
Electric Field E
If the source is vary with time
Consider finite propagation time delay

Hertzian dipole
l
/50

https://www.symbolab.com/

How to fid the electric field?
H
1

H sin H
-

r
r sin

1 1

H r

rH
-
1 rH - H r spherical
r sin r
r r

H
1

H sin r 1 - rH
r sin r r


Topics covered
Hetizian dipole E field , H field.

Radiation term Induction term Electrostatic field term
At point close to the current element where the Induction term

predominates r/v is very small, t t,

Reactive term energy that is stored one quarter of a cycle
Returned to the circuit during the next quarter of a cycle.

How to fid the electric field?
A small elemental wire antenna is excited with a sinusoid current of frequency 1 MHz. The
induction field and radiation field are at equal distance d from the antenna. The value of d will
nearly_________[IES]

Radiation field of a Hertzian dipole

Fields from an oscillating dipole
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Current Distribution on a thin wire antenna

Total radiated power
www.symbolab.com

In terms of effective current

Effective Length.

= =


Quarter-wave monopole and folded dipole.

R=r-x

r
x

= =

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Topics covered so far
Magnetic Vector Potential A z

To Find Magnetic Field H
In the far-eld region of the z-oriented dipole,

the component of the magnetic vector
potential transverse to the direction of
propagation is A

To Find Electric Field E

L= L = 1.5

To Find Power

Show that
cos2() = 1/2 + 1/2 cos(2)
interchanging the limits of integration

Substituting u = t in the rst integral

interchanging the limits
Second term equal to first term

u+ = y
y=(1+u)
dy/du=
We make another substitution, u = y ,to get
dy/y= du/(1+u)
Taylor series expansion of cos y

same current; 1
voltage 1
impedance
2 2
For quarter wave monopole R rad =36.5 ohms

Z in
1
73 j 42.5 Z in 36.5 j 21.2
2

Current Distribution on a thin wire antenna.
SMALL DIPOLE /50 < l < /10

For radiation patterns
Antenna arrangements for pattern measurements
Reciprocity theorem:
If neither the antenna nor the medium contain non-reciprocal elements, then
The antenna has the same pattern for the receiving and the
transmitting mode.
Moving either antenna #1 or antenna #2 according to the
above
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The Folded Dipole
The folded dipole is the same length as a standard dipole, but is

made with two parallel conductors, joined at both ends and
separated by a distance that is short compared with the length
of the antenna
Propagation in Free Space
power density at that distance d from the radiator

If the radiator can be made to transmit Gt
times as much power in that direction
(for example by putting a reflector behind it)
power density at that distance d from the radiator

For vertically earthed Find out the field
antenna. strength at 30 Km away
from a transmitting
90
= station 25 KW power

= E=50mV/metre

we will see later that the gain and aperture of an antenna are related by

A person with a receiver is 5 km
away from the transmitter. What is the
distance that this person must move
further to detect at 3 dB decrease in
signal strength?

From the position P1 the person having
receiver moves some distance to detect 3
dB decrease is signal strength. Field
strength at P2 is 1/ 2 times field strength
at position 1.
Thus distance moved from point 1 to point 2 = 2070 m

If the electric field strength of a
plane wave is 1 V/m, what is the
strength of a magnetic field n free
space.
2.6 mA/metre

A thin dipole antenna is /15 along. If its loss
resistance 1.5 ohm, find radiation
resistance and the efficiency

3.5 ohm = 100 = 70%
+

An antenna in free space receives 2 of power
when the incident electric field is 20 mV/m rms. The
effective aperture of the antenna is

For a dipole antenna
(a) The radiation intensity is maximum
along the normal to the dipole
axis
(b) The current distribution along its
length is uniform irrespective of the
length
(c) The effective length equals its
physical length
(d) The input impedance is
independent of the location of the
feed point

The vector in the far field of an antenna satisfies

For a Hertz dipole antenna, the half power
beam width (HPBW) in the E
plane is
(a) 3600
(b) 1800
(c) 900
(d) 450

The electric field E and the magnetic
field H of a short dipole antenna
satisfy the condition
(a) The r component of E is
equal to zero Out of these six
components only
(b) Both r and following three
components of H are equal components exist
to zero
c) The component of E
dominates the r component
in the far field region
(d) The and
components of H are of the
same order of magnitude in
the near field region
Two dissimilar antennas having their
maximum directivities equal
(a) Must have their beam
widths also equal
(b) Cannot have their beam
widths equal because they
are dissimilarantennas
(c) May not necessarily have
their maximum power gains
equal Radiation resistance of two antennas may be
different hence efficiency may not be same.
(d) Must have their effective This indicates power gains may not be
aperture areas (capture same.
areas) also equal

A 1 km long microwave link uses two antennas each having 30dB gain. If
the power transmitted by one antenna is 1 W at 3 GHz, the power
received by the other antenna is approximately

A parabolic dish antenna has a conical beam 20 0
wide. The directivity of the antenna is approximately

Antenna Array
Antenna arrays are formed from an
assembly of radiating or receiving
elements in a particular electrical and
geometrical configuration.

Principle of function
Fields from elements in the array
interfere constructively for certain
directions(maxima) and destructively
for other directions ( nulls)

Parameters that influence the overall
pattern of an array
Geometrical array configuration (linear, circular,

rectangular, elliptical, spherical, cylindrical,
conformal to a nonplanar surface, etc)
Relative spacing between elements
Amplitude excitation of elements
Phase excitation of elements
Relative pattern of individual elements

2. Two-elements arrays

Total field as the superposition of the
fields from both dipoles

Far-field approximations
For amplitude term
For phase term

Total field pattern in the yz-plane
Array factor (far field)

The array factor is a function of the geometry of the array (number
of elements, relative distance) and the excitation phase and
amplitude.
Simple expressions are obtained when the elements have identical
amplitudes, phases and spacing.
The array factor corresponds to the pattern of the array where the
actual radiating elements are replaced with isotropic point sources.
Pattern multiplication (far field)
The far-zone field distribution of an array of identical

elements is equal to the product of the field of a
single element at the reference point (origin) and the
array factor of that array
Note: Mutual coupling (later) is not included in pattern multiplication

N-element linear arrays
N identical elements along z.
Current excitation with

identical amplitude I0.
Each succeeding element
has a progressive phase
relative to the preceding
one.
Far field approximation:
The path difference from
two adjacent elements in
the far-field is given by
d cos

Where
for infinitesimal dipole

Array factor becomes superposition of
all far field contributions

If we chose the reference point in the
physical center of the array, the array
factor reduces to
The maximum value of this array

factor is equal to N.(Ref next slide)

0
0
=
0
Apply L hospital rule

( ) ( )( )
2 2
AF= lim

2
AF= lim
0 ( ) 0 ( )
2 2 2
Observations: AF=N
Main lobe is in the direction so that = k d cos + = 0
The main lobe narrows as N increases.
Broadside array
The maximum of radiation
is directed normal
to the array ( = 90)

End-fire array
The maximum of radiation is

directed along the axis of the
array (either = 0 or = 180
or both)

Nulls
Nulls are found by setting the AF to zero

Nulls

Maxima
The maximum value of the AF occurs

when its denominator becomes zero

Nulls
Maxima
The number of nulls and maxima will be a

function of the element spacing and the
phase excitation difference
DolphChebyshev (DCA)
Dolph proposed (in 1946) a method to design

arrays with any desired side-lobe levels and any
HPBWs.
This method is based on the approximation of

the pattern of the array by a Chebyshev
polynomial of order m, high enough to meet the
requirement for the side-lobe levels.
Let us consider a linear array with an even
number (2M) of elements
For a broadside array, = 0 .
Array factor
Normalized
odd number (2M+1) of elements
Normalized

Note that the array factors are coefficients
multiplied by cosines with arguments that are
integer multiples of u.
Through the transformation of z = cos u, the
terms may be written as a set of polynomials
[Chebyshev polynomials T m(z)].
Properties of Chebyshev Polynomials
1. Even ordered Chebyshev polynomials are even

functions.
2. Odd ordered Chebyshev polynomials are odd
functions.
3. The magnitude of any Chebyshev polynomial is
unity or less in the range of -1 z 1.
4. T m (1) = 1 for all Chebyshev polynomials.
5. All zeros (roots) of the Chebshev polynomials lie
within the range of -1 z 1.
Using the properties of Chebyshev polynomials, we
may design arrays with all side lobes at a prescribed
level below the main beam
The order of the Chebyshev polynomial should be

one less than the total number of elements in the
array (P-1).
Through the transformation of z = cos u, the terms
may be written as a set of polynomials [Chebyshev
polynomials T m(z)].
The Chebyshev polynomials
The Chebyshev polynomials are defined by:

A nice feature of Chebyschev polynomials is that T
m(z) of any order m can be derived via a recursion
formula, provided Tm-1(z) and Tm-2(z) are defined.
The main goal is to approximate the desired AF with a
Chebyshev polynomial such that
the side-lobe level meets the requirements, and
the main beam width is small enough.
An array of N elements has an AF, which can be

approximated with a Chebyshev polynomial of order
m that is always:
Where
N = 2 M , if N is even;
N = 2 M + 1 , if N is odd.
In general, for a given side-lobe level, the higher the

order of the polynomial, the narrower the beam
width.
The AF of an N-element array will be identical
with a Chebyshev polynomial if
Here,

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Concept of retarded vector potential

How this fields are related to their sources?

First set up potentials in terms of the

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Heuristic Start with

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J Source current density,

Field is represented by either

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Only possible when

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This equation coupled to each other

Helmholtz theorem: Vector field is uniquely defined

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For non time varying potential

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Magnetic vector potential is related to current only

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If the source is vary with time

Consider finite propagation time delay

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Hetizian dipole E field , H field.

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At point close to the current element where the Induction term

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Magnetic Vector Potential A z

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In the far-eld region of the z-oriented dipole,

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cos2() = 1/2 + 1/2 cos(2)

interchanging the limits of integration

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Second term equal to first term

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Taylor series expansion of cos y

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For quarter wave monopole R rad =36.5 ohms

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The folded dipole is the same length as a standard dipole, but is

power density at that distance d from the radiator

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power density at that distance d from the radiator

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