Power Steering

ABE 435
October 21, 2005
Ackerman Geometry
o i

Basic layout for

passenger cars, trucks,
and ag tractors
o = outer steering Center of
angle and i = inner L Gravity
Turn
steering angle R
Center
i
R= turn radius o
L= wheelbase and
Figure 1.1.
t=distance between Pivoting
t
tires Spindle

(Gillespie, 1992)
Cornering Stiffness and
Lateral Force of a Single
Tire
Lateral force (Fy) is the force produced by
the tire due to the slip angle.
The cornering stiffness (C) is the rate of
change of the lateral force with the slip
angle.
V

Fy Figure 1.2. Fy

C
t
Fy acts at a

(1) distance (t) from
the wheel center
known as the
pneumatic trail

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

Slip Angles
The slip angle () is the angle at which a tire rolls
and is determined by the following equations:

W f *V 2
f (2)

Cf * g * R V
Wr *V 2
r Fy t
Cr * g * R (3)

W = weight on tires
C = Cornering Stiffness
Figure 1.2.
g = acceleration of gravity Repeated
V = vehicle velocity

(Gillespie, 1992)
 Steering angle
The steering angle () is also known as the
Ackerman angle and is the average of the front
wheel angles
i
For low speeds it is: o

L
(4)
R
For high speeds it is:
Center

L of
L
f r Gravity R
i
o
R (5)
f=front slip angle
r=rear slip angle Figure 1.1.
t
Repeated
(Gillespie, 1992)
Three Wheel
Figure 1.3. Three wheel
vehicle with turn radius
and steering angle
shown
R

Easier to determine steer angle

Turn center is the intersection of just
two lines
Both axles pivot
Figure 1.5. Both axles
pivot with turn radius
and steering angle
R
shown

Only two lines determine steering

angle and turning radius
Can have a shorter turning radius
Articulated

Can have
shorter
turning
radius
Allows front Figure 1.6. Articulated
and back vehicle with turn radius
and steering angle
axle to be shown

solid
Aligning Torque of a
Single Tire
Aligning Torque (Mz) is the resultant
moment about the center of the
wheel due to the lateral force.

M z Fy * t (6)
V

t
Fy
Figure 1.7. Top Mz
view of a tire
showing the
aligning torque.

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

Camber Angle

Camber angle ()
is the angle
between the wheel
center and the
vertical.
It can also be
referred to as
inclination angle Figure 1.8.
(). Camber angle

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

 Camber Thrust
Camber thrust (FYc) is
due to the wheel rolling
at the camber angle Mzc tc
The thrust occurs at Fyc
small distance (tc) from
the wheel center
A camber torque is then
produced (MZc)

Figure 1.9. Camber thrust and torque

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

Camber on Ag Tractor
Pivot Axis

Figure 1.10.
Camber angle on
an actual tractor
Wheel Caster
Pivot Axis
The axle is placed
some distance
behind the pivot
axis
Promotes stability
Steering becomes
more difficult Figure 1.11. Wheel
caster creating
stability

(Milliken, et. al., 2002)

Neutral Steer

No change in the steer angle is

necessary as speed changes
The steer angle will then be equal to
the
Ackerman angle.
Front and rear slip angles are equal

(Gillespie, 1992)
Understeer
The steered wheels must be steered to a
greater angle than the rear wheels
The steer angle on a constant radius turn is
increased by the understeer gradient (K)

times the lateral acceleration. V

t
L ay
K * ay (7)

R
Figure 1.2.
Repeated

(Gillespie, 1992)
 Understeer Gradient
If we set equation 6 equal to equation 2 we can see that
K*ay is equal to the difference in front and rear slip
angles.
Substituting equations 3 and 4 in for the slip angles yields:

Wf Wr
K (8)
Cf Cr
Since
2
V
ay (9)
g*R
(Gillespie, 1992)
Characteristic Speed

The characteristic speed is a way

to quantify understeer.
Speed at which the steer angle is
twice the Ackerman angle.

57.3 * L * g
Vchar (10)
K

(Gillespie, 1992)
Oversteer
The vehicle is such that the steering
wheel must be turned so that the
steering angle decreases as speed is
increased
The steering angle is decreased by the
understeer gradient times the lateral
acceleration, meaning the understeer
gradient is negative
Front steer angle is less than rear steer
angle
(Gillespie, 1992)
Critical Speed
The critical speed is the speed
where an oversteer vehicle is
no longer directionally stable.

57.3 * L * g
Vcrit (11)
K

Note: K is negative in oversteer case

(Gillespie, 1992)
Lateral Acceleration Gain
Lateral acceleration gain is the ratio of
lateral acceleration to the steering angle.
Helps to quantify the performance of the
system by telling us how much lateral
acceleration is achieved per degree of
steer angle
V2
ay 57.3Lg (12)

KV 2
1
57.3Lg
(Gillespie, 1992)
 Example Problem
A car has a weight of 1850 lb front axle and 1550 lb
on the rear with a wheelbase of 105 inches. The tires
have the cornering stiffness values given below:
Load Cornering Cornering
lb/tire Stiffness Coefficient
lbs/deg lb/lb/deg
225 74 0.284
425 115 0.272
625 156 0.260
925 218 0.242
1125 260 0.230
Determine the steer angle if the
minimum turn radius is 75 ft:
We just use equation 1.

L 105 / 12
0.117 rad.
R 75
Or 6.68 deg
Basic System Components

Steering Valve
Cylinder/Actuator
Filter
Reservoir
Steering Pump
Relief Valve
Can be built into
pump
 Pump

Driven by direct or indirect coupling

with the engine or electric motor
The type depends on pressure and
displacement requirements,
permissible noise levels, and circuit
type
Actuators

There are three types of actuators

Rack and pinion
Cylinder
Vane
The possible travel of the actuator is
limited by the steering geometry
Cylinders

Between the steered wheels

Always double acting
Can be one or two cylinders
Recommended that the stroke to bore
ratio be between 5 and 8 (Whittren)
Hydrostatic Steering Valve
Consists of two sections E
Fluid control D A
Fluid metering
Contains the following
Linear spool (A) G
Drive link (B)
Rotor and stator set
(C) F
Manifold (D)
C
Commutator ring (E) B H
Commutator (F)
Input shaft (G)
Torsion bar (H)
 Steering Valve
Characteristics
Usually six way
Commonly spool valves
Closed Center, Open Center, or Critical Center
Must provide an appropriate flow gain
Must be sized to achieve suitable pressure losses
at maximum flow
No float or lash
No internal leakage to or from the cylinder
Must not be sticky
Valve Flows
The flow to the load from the valve can be
calculated as:
(1)

The flow from the supply to the valve can

be calculated as:
(2)

QL=flow to the load from the valve A1=larger valve orifice

QS=flow to the valve from the supply A2=smaller valve orifice
Cd=discharge coefficient =fluid density
PS=pressure at the supply PL=pressure at the load
(Merritt, 1967)
Flow Gain

Flow gain is the ratio of flow

increment to valve travel at a given
pressure drop (Wittren, 1975)
It is determined by the following
equation:

(3)

QL=flow from the valve to the load

Xv=displacement from null position
Flow Gain
Lands ground to
change area
gradient
Open Center Valve Flow

The following equation represents the flow to the

load for an open center valve:
(10)

If PL and xv are taken to be 0 then, the leakage

flow is:
(11)

U=Underlap of valve

(Merritt, 1967)
Open Center Flow Gain

In the null position, the flow gain

can be determined by (Merritt,
pg. 97):

(12)

The variables are the same as defined in the

previous slide.

(Merritt, 1967)
Pressure Sensitivity

Pressure sensitivity is an indication

of the effect of spool movement on
pressure
It is given by the following equation
from Merritt:

(4)
Open Center Pressure
Sensitivity
In the null position, the open center
pressure sensitivity is:

(13)

U = underlap
(Merritt, 1967)
Open Center System

Fixed Displacement Pump

Continuously supplies flow
to the steering valve
Gear or Vane
Simple and economical
Works the best on smaller
vehicles
Open Center Circuit, Non-
Reversing Metering
Section

Non-Reversing-
Cylinder ports are
blocked in neutral
valve position, the
operator must steer
the wheel back to
straight
Open Center Circuit,
Reversing

Reversing
Wheels
automatically
return to
straight
Open Center Circuit,
Power Beyond
Any flow not used
by steering goes
to secondary
function
Good for lawn
and garden Auxiliary
equipment and Port
utility vehicles
Open Center Demand
Circuit
Contains closed center load
sensing valve and open
center auxiliary circuit valve
When vehicle is steered,
steering valve lets pressure
to priority demand valve,
increasing pressure at
priority valve causes flow to
shift
Uses fixed displacement
pump
Closed Center System
Pump-variable delivery, constant pressure
Commonly an axial piston pump with
variable swash plate
A compensator controls output flow
maintaining constant pressure at the
steering unit
Usually high pressure systems
Possible to share the pump with other
hydraulic functions
Must have a priority valve for the
steering system
Closed Center Circuit,
Non-Reversing
Variable displacement
pump
All valve ports blocked
when vehicle is not
being steered
Amount of flow
dependent on steering
speed and
displacement of
steering valve
Closed Center Circuit with
priority valve
With steering
priority valve
Variable volume,
pressure
compensating
pump
Priority valve
ensures adequate
flow to steering
valve
Closed Center Load
Sensing Circuit
A special load sensing
valve is used to operate
the actuator
Load variations in the
steering circuit do not
affect axle response or
steering rate
Only the flow required by
the steering circuit is
sent to it
Priority valve ensures the
steering circuit has
adequate flow and
pressure
Arrangements

Steering valve
and metering
unit as one
linked to
steering wheel

Metering unit at
steering wheel,
steering valve
remote linked
Design Calculations-
Hydraguide
Calculate Kingpin Torque
Determine Cylinder Force
Calculate Cylinder Area
Determine Cylinder Stroke
Calculate Swept Volume
Calculate Displacement
Calculate Minimum Pump Flow
Decide if pressure is suitable
Select Relief Valve Setting
(Parker, 2000)
Kingpin Torque (Tk)

First determine
the coefficient
of friction () Figure 3.10.
using the chart.
Coefficient of
Friction Chart
E (in) is the and Kingpin
Diagram
Kingpin offset (Parker)
and B (in) is the
nominal tire
width

(Parker, 2000)
 Kingpin Torque
Information about the tire is needed. If we
assume a uniform tire pressure then the
following equation can be used.

Io
T W * * E2 (1)
A
W=Weight on steered axle (lbs)
Io=Polar moment of inertia of tire print
A=area of tire print
.= Friction Coefficient
E= Kingpin Offset
(Parker, 2000)
 Kingpin Torque
If the pressure distribution is known then the
radius of gyration (k) can be computed. The
following relationship can be applied.
Io
k 2
(2)
A
If there is no information available about the tire
print, then a circular tire print can be assumed using
the nominal tire width as the diameter
2
B
Tk W* E2 (3)
8

(Parker, 2000)
Calculate Approximate
Cylinder Force (Fc)

TK
FC (4)

R
Fc= Cylinder Force (lbs) Figure 3.11 Geometry
R = Minimum Radius Arm Diagram (Parker)
TK= Kingpin Torque
(Parker, 2000)
Calculate Cylinder Area (Ac)
Fc
Ac (5)

P
Fc=Cylinder Force (lbs)
P=Pressure rating of steering valve
Select the next larger cylinder size
-For a single cylinder use only the rod area
-For a double cylinder use the rod end area plus
the bore area
(Parker, 2000)
Determine Cylinder Stroke (S)

Figure 3.11 Geometry

Diagram (Parker)
Repeated

(Parker, 2000)
Swept Volume (Vs) of Cylinder

Swept Volume (in3) One Balanced Cylinder

VS * (D D ) * S
2
B
2
R (6)
4
DB=Diameter of bore
DR=Diameter of rod
S = Stroke
Vs = Swept volume
(Parker, 2000)
Swept Volume of Cylinder
One Unbalanced Cylinder
Head Side

* DB2
Vs *S
4 (7)

Rod Side
-Same as one balanced
Two Unbalanced Cylinders
*S
Vs (2 * DB DR )
2 2
(8)
4
(Parker, 2000)
Displacement

Vs
D (9)

n
D= Displacement
n= Number of steering wheel turns lock to lock
Vs = Volume swept

(Parker, 2000)
Minimum Pump Flow

D * Ns
Q (10)

231
Ns = steering speed in revolutions per minute
Q = Pump Flow is in gpm per revolution
D = Displacement

(Parker, 2000)
Steering Speed

The ideal steering speed is 120 rpm,

which is considered the maximum
input achievable by an average person
The minimum normally considered is
usually 60 rpm
90 rpm is common

(Parker, 2000)
Hydraulic Power Assist

Hydraulic power assist means that a

hydraulic system is incorporated with
mechanical steering
This is the type of power steering used
on most on-highway vehicles
Full Time Part Time
Power Steering
Part Time
The force of the center springs of the valve gives
the driver the feel of the road at the steering
wheel.

Full Time
The valve is installed without centering springs.
Any movement of the steering wheel results in
hydraulic boost being applied.

(Vickers, 1967)
Electrohydraulic Steering

Electrohydraulic steering can refer

to
A hydraulic power steering system
driven with and electric motor
A power steering system that uses
wires to sense the steering wheel
input and actuate the steering valve
Electric Motor

An electric motor can be used to

power the steering pump instead of
the engine
Lowers fuel consumption
Allows for more flexibility of design
SKF Electro-hydraulic Steering
Considerations for E-H
System Design
Simulation of end stops
Operational environment
Safety
Steering functions
Force feedback